Samuel, First and Second Books of
seven words from the cross
slavery in the ancient Near East
slavery in the New Testament
sons of God, children of God
Sabaoth (sab′ay-oth), Lord of. See names of God in the Hebrew Bible.
sabbath (sab′uhth; Heb. shabbat, “to cease, desist”), the weekly day of rest and abstention from work enjoined upon the Israelites.
Origin: An etiological origin for the sabbath is supplied in Gen. 2:1–3, which speaks of God ceasing from the work of creation on the seventh day, blessing the day, and declaring it holy. The Bible also credits Moses with instituting specific sabbath laws (e.g., Exod. 16:22–30).
Scholars have looked for parallels between Hebrew sabbath observance and days of rest in other religions or cultures of the ancient Near East. Three similarities with Babylonian rites are intriguing, though they ultimately serve to point up the distinctiveness of Israel’s traditions. First, the Babylonian monthly calendar designated certain days on which normal activities of the king and certain professions were restricted. These days, known as “evil days,” were determined by the lunar cycle, corresponding with the quarters of the moon. The biblical sabbath, however, was ordained as a weekly institution with no relation whatsoever to the lunar cycle. Moreover, the somber nature of the Babylonian “evil days” stands in stark contrast to the joyous nature of the sabbath.
Second, in Babylonian culture, the full moon on the fifteenth of the month was known as shapattu, a term possibly related to sabbath. This day was described as a “day of pacifying the heart [of the god]” by certain ceremonies. Apart from the name, however, no significant similarities between this day and the Israelite sabbath have been recognized. Finally, the closest analogy between the biblical sabbath and Babylonian culture is the shared literary motif in Israelite and Babylonian creation stories of the god(s) resting after having created humans (see Enuma Elish 7.8, 34). Even here, however, the parallel is distant. The biblical God rests to signify that the work of creation is completed (nothing more needs to be done), while the Babylonian gods rest because, once humans were created to feed them, they no longer needed to labor to feed themselves.
Observance: The sabbath was a cornerstone of Israelite religious practice from earliest times. This can be seen from the consistent mention of the sabbath throughout all the strata of pentateuchal and extrapentateuchal sources, with the exception of wisdom literature. In the Pentateuch, sabbath observance is legislated repeatedly in general terms (Exod. 20:8–11; 23:12; 31:12–17; Lev. 23:3; Deut. 5:12–15), though the types of work prohibited are relatively limited; those mentioned include gathering food, plowing and reaping, kindling a fire, and chopping wood (Exod. 16:29–30; 34:21; 35:3; Num. 15:32–36). The positive specifications of sabbath observance include giving rest to one’s servants and animals (Exod. 20:10; 23:12; Deut. 5:14).
Outside the Pentateuch, evidence relating to the practical observance of the sabbath is not overabundant, but it is more extensive than that found for most laws. During the monarchic period (ca. 1050–587/6 BCE), the sabbath (as well as the New Moon) was marked by visits to prophet and temple (2 Kings 4:23; Isa. 1:13). Business activity came to a halt (Amos 8:5). The sabbath was a joyous day, much like the festivals (Hos. 2:13; Lam. 2:6). Its desecration was severely attacked by Jeremiah, who lashed out against those who carried burdens from their houses or through the gates of Jerusalem on the sabbath (17:19–27). During the period of postexilic restoration, Nehemiah enforced observance of the sabbath by locking the city gates of Jerusalem in order to prevent traders from selling their wares (Neh. 13:15–22). Contemporary documents from a Jewish colony in Elephantine, Egypt, likewise mention the sabbath, attesting to its recognition by Jews in the Dispersion (i.e., outside the land of Israel) in the fifth century BCE.
In addition to these features of popular observance of the sabbath, one can piece together a picture of sabbath observance in the temple. The pentateuchal prescriptions of additional sacrifices and changing of the bread of the Presence on the sabbath (Lev. 24:8; Num. 28:9–10) apparently reflect accepted practice (cf. Ezek. 45:17; 46:4–5; 1 Chron. 9:32; 23:31; 2 Chron. 2:3; 8:13; 31:3). The sacrificial service may have been accompanied by a special psalm (Ps. 92:1). There is also a somewhat cryptic reference to the changing of the royal guards at the temple on the sabbath (2 Kings 11:4–12).
Purpose: Two major rationales for sabbath observance are presented in the Pentateuch. The concept of the sabbath as a memorial to God’s resting from the work of creation is expressed in Gen. 2:1–3 and repeated in Exod. 20:11; 31:17. The last passage broadens the concept in defining the sabbath as “a sign forever between (God) and the people of Israel.” Although God had already sanctified the seventh day at the time of creation, God did not reveal its special status to humankind at large, but only to Israel. Thus, Israel’s observance of the sabbath underscored its special relationship with God. This rationale was emphasized by Priestly writers.
Along with the theological rationale, a distinctly humanistic approach is to be found in Exod. 23:12 and Deut. 5:14–15, both of which ground the observance of the sabbath on the need to give servants, strangers, and work animals an opportunity to rest. The added reminder in Deut. 5:15 of Israel’s experience in Egypt most likely intends to bolster the ow...