Encyclopedia of Crisis Management

K. Bradley Penuel, Matt Statler, Ryan Hagen, K. Bradley Penuel, Matt Statler, Ryan Hagen

• Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9781452226125
• eBook ISBN: 9781506354996
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Business General
• Index: Business

Although now a growing and respectable research field, crisis management—as a formal area of study—is relatively young, having emerged since the 1980s following a succession of such calamities as the Bhopal gas leak, Chernobyl nuclear accident, Space Shuttle Challenger loss, and Exxon Valdez oil spill. Analysis of organizational failures that caused such events helped drive the emerging field of crisis management. Simultaneously, the world has experienced a number of devastating natural disasters: Hurricane Katrina, the Japanese earthquake and tsunami, etc. From such crises, both human-induced and natural, we have learned our modern, tightly interconnected and interdependent society is simply more vulnerable to disruption than in the past. This interconnectedness is made possible in part by crisis management and increases our reliance upon it. As such, crisis management is as beneficial and crucial today as information technology has become over the last few decades.

Crisis is varied and unavoidable. While the examples highlighted above were extreme, we see crisis every day within organizations, governments, businesses and the economy. A true crisis differs from a "routine" emergency, such as a water pipe bursting in the kitchen. Per one definition, "it is associated with urgent, high-stakes challenges in which the outcomes can vary widely (and are very negative at one end of the spectrum) and will depend on the actions taken by those involved." Successfully engaging, dealing with, and working through a crisis requires an understanding of options and tools for individual and joint decision making. Our Encyclopedia of Crisis Management comprehensively overviews concepts and techniques for effectively assessing, analyzing, managing, and resolving crises, whether they be organizational, business, community, or political. From general theories and concepts exploring the meaning and causes of crisis to practical strategies and techniques relevant to crises of specific types, crisis management is thoroughly explored.

Features & Benefits:

• A collection of 385 signed entries are organized in A-to-Z fashion in 2 volumes available in both print and electronic formats.
• Entries conclude with Cross-References and Further Readings to guide students to in-depth resources.
• Selected entries feature boxed case studies, providing students with "lessons learned" in how various crises were successfully or unsuccessfully managed and why.
• Although organized A-to-Z, a thematic "Reader?s Guide" in the front matter groups related entries by broad areas (e.g., Agencies & Organizations, Theories & Techniques, Economic Crises, etc.).
• Also in the front matter, a Chronology provides students with historical perspective on the development of crisis management as a discrete field of study.
• The work concludes with a comprehensive Index, which—in the electronic version—combines with the Reader?s Guide and Cross-References to provide thorough search-and-browse capabilities.
• A template for an "All-Hazards Preparedness Plan" is provided the backmatter; the electronic version of this allows students to explore customized response plans for crises of various sorts.
• Appendices also include a Resource Guide to classic books, journals, and internet resources in the field, a Glossary, and a vetted list of crisis management-related degree programs, crisis management conferences, etc.

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A

Agency Notification and Mobilization

Disasters and crises become defining events in a hazard cycle that is marked by four temporal stages: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. As such, primary agencies (e.g., law enforcement, medical, armed forces, city planners, governmental, contractors) strive to “decrease vulnerability to major disaster by taking measures to reduce casualties and exposure to damage and disruption or that provide passive protection during disaster impact.” In this way, mitigation strategies aim toward reducing hazard exposures and developing emergency response plans in the event of major disaster or crisis. In order for effective emergency agency response to be effective, therefore, individual social units must be well versed in different forms of proactive response that is sensitive to the community in which the emergency plan is developed. Simply put, Kathleen Tierney maintains that organizational preparedness includes developing emergency response plans; training employees to act proactively and response personnel on what to do in an emergency situation; acquiring needed equipment, supplies, and materials; and conducting drills and exercises. Further, it is imperative that members of emergency response agencies participate in “drills” that enable them to keep their rescue and recovery skills as honed as possible. In the event that a natural or technological disaster occurs, emergency plans and agencies need to be mobilized smoothly and effectively, so as to bring the greatest aid to the largest number of people within the shortest amount of time. With that said, emergency response plans are put into place to mitigate the direct effects of whatever the emergency entails by responding to the immediate needs of the disaster victims.

Because of the possibility of the occurrence of disasters of unprecedented size and destructiveness, it is necessary that each state create an emergency management agency that is charged with authorizing emergency management programs, to give the governor the power to declare a state of emergency, should the need arise, and to coordinate varying offices during a state of emergency to channel appropriate aid to the areas most in need. The state-level emergency management agency is also charged with coordinating volunteer efforts (e.g., Red Cross or humanitarian aid) and shall remain effectively the “go to” arena for entities wishing to assist in the event of disaster and after which time that a state governor has declared a state of emergency.

When emergency agencies (police, fire, emergency medical services, National Guard, armed forces, etc.) are mobilized, the primary emphasis of their actions, according to Tierney, must be to work to “reduce casualties, damage and disruption, and to respond to the immediate needs of disaster victims.” Mobilizing response agencies at the local, state, and governmental levels requires an ability to evaluate and neutralize potential threats, sending out necessary warnings to vulnerable populations regarding specific hazards in and around the disaster zone, evacuating populations requiring such, conducting search and rescue operations for victims of disasters, administering medical care, and providing emergency shelter and food until the situation is neutralized. Further, once the immediacy of the crisis has passed, emergency response agencies work to repair, rebuild, and reconstruct (if possible) damaged property, in an attempt to remove populations displaced by crisis and disaster from temporary shelters back to their permanent residences as quickly, and as efficiently as possible.

In order to streamline joint-rescue efforts, an ice rescue instructor from the U.S. Coast Guard Station in Cleveland Harbor, Ohio, provides instructions to Cleveland Fire Department personnel during ice-rescue training on February 3, 2010. Primary agencies strive to reduce their vulnerability to major disasters by enhancing their organizational preparedness, which includes developing emergency response plans, training employees and response personnel, and conducting drills and exercises to sharpen their rescue and recovery skills.

Returning to the issue of organizational effectiveness, it is clear that local, state, and federal agencies must have a plan in place that governs the way in which individual agencies will coordinate with other entities to ensure the safety of communities at risk. More specifically, it is important for emergency plans to be drawn out so that the degree of emergency/crisis is known and requisite response teams are able to jump into action when presented with specific critical issues and problems. As such, local, state, and federal governments have been charged by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), with developing specific levels of response, including which teams will respond to specific types of threats, as well as the types of action deemed to be appropriate responses given the threat at hand.

Local, state, and federal emergency planners have identified four levels of response for emergency entities:

Level 1 indicates routine operations. Occurring and forecasted events present little, if any, threat. Events are monitored and managed successfully by the appropriate agency, but additional emergency agencies are not required to respond.

Level 2 indicates a “heightened sense of awareness.” Occurring or forecasted events include a potential or present threat, for example, weather or river watch/warning, volcano status changes, multiple wildfires, extended search and rescue, or a law enforcement action. “Events exceed routine, but responsible offices are able to manage with additional support from commonly used sources,” according to the definition of the Alaska Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management. At this level, the Department of Homeland Security and emergency managers may develop search and rescue teams, and may also call upon local emergency planners to “mobilize additional staff, as well as to continue to evaluate” the critical issues at play during the incident. It is important to note, here, that at this level, local, state, and federal emergency managers, acting under the rubric of the Department of Homeland Security, maintain the primary responsibility for managing the integrity of the disaster zone, together with the management with the situation.

Level 3 indicates that an “actual event has occurred or may be imminent,” for example: river flooding disrupts public transportation, extended search and rescue requires interagency support, a wild land fire requires evacuation and shelter planning, or a raised Homeland Security threat level. At this level, a local emergency operations center is opened, and elected leadership (state governors, the president of the United States, etc.) may declare a disaster area, so as to release federal funds (administered through FEMA) to assist with the immediacy of displacement following a major emergency. When mobilized at this level, local, state, and federal agencies work together to manage the local crisis. At the mobilization of a Level 3 crisis, the Department of Homeland Security maintains the primary jurisdiction over the crisis but may seek support from other agencies to assist with crisis recovery.

Level 4 is invoked in response to the most extreme life-threatening and/or property-damaging event. Examples include a river flood, sea storm surge, or tsunami that displaces residents and damages structures; or a woodland fire that requires evacuation and sheltering of residents; or occurrence of a damaging earthquake. At this level, the situation is so dire that it cannot be handled exclusively at the local level. Instead, Level 4 crises require significant mobilization of emergency resources from multiple levels of government. During these sorts of extreme emergency events, significant interagency cooperation is a must, and it is achieved through a statewide disaster declaration by the governor. Once again, at this level, primary crisis response is developed, coordinated, and mitigated by the Department of Homeland Security and FEMA. However, in the event that the crisis at hand exceeds what the state and local governments can provide, the governor of the affected state(s) may file a request for a Presidential Disaster Declaration. In so doing, and if the president does declare a specific area as a disaster zone, this action mobilizes federal aid resources and funds to be administered by FEMA.

At the local and state levels, therefore, specific criteria are referenced in such a way as to determine the level of preparedness and potential for crisis in a given region. This analysis includes, but is not limited to, the following issues affecting entities that may find themselves in a disaster zone:

• Actual or forecasted weather events that may cause significant impacts on citizens and their property.

• “Occurring or predicted geologic events that can cause impacts to people, property and transportation systems [Normally these will be volcanic eruptions or increases in seismicity. Earthquakes could change preparedness levels, however that will normally occur after the event]” (state of Alaska definition).

• Wildfire activity throughout the state that impacts other agencies.

• Availability of emergency response and recovery resources in the state.

• Major events occurring in communities that may impact their response capabilities (such as power failures, water and sewer system disruptions, fires).

In sum, agency notification and mobilization remain linked to the type of crisis being experienced, the breadth of resources needed to combat the crisis, and how widespread and far-reaching the critical issues are, vis-à-vis the types of resources available to combat them on a local, state, and/or federal level. Further, one additional component must be considered when evaluating issues of agency notification and mobilization, namely, the role of social media (Facebook, Twitter, Foursquare, Google Plus, etc.) not only in creating fast and easy access to victim/missing persons lists but also in serving as a central point through which volunteer agencies and groups can mobilize their resources and network with others in a quick and easy-to-use platform. Further, social media work to bring communities together quickly and enable an important volunteer platform for the mobilization of resources in addition to those resources that are brought in by local, state, and federal governments. This is especially important when conventional forms of communication break down, as was the case with the two-way radios during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and during Hurricane Katrina, when volunteers formed the Cajun Army—a group of volunteer boat owners who organized themselves and then braved the waters in the Lower Ninth Ward of New Orleans to rescue people from their rooftops and from the toxic flood waters. As such, while the conventional forms of networking and drawing upon local, state, and federal resources are important, indeed, these efforts are often augmented by the mobilization of the masses, who, if they have resources available to them, often jump into the fray to assist conventional aid workers, often with extremely positive results.

Issues relating to agency notification and mobilization are complex, as communication among and between local, state, and federal agencies can often be mired in red tape. However, recognizing that significant changes have been made since the well-documented debacle immediately following Hurricane Katrina involving the breakdown in getting aid to those who were trapped in the Lower Ninth Ward of New Orleans and in the shelters of last resort (the Superdome and Convention Center), social media sources (Facebook and Twitter) have also taken hold as key social institutions available to mobilize resources in the event of significant disaster or crisis. As the crisis emanating from Hurricane Katrina has made exceptionally clear, not only do local, state, and federal entities play a role in the mobilization of resources (and only do so when notified by official state personnel), but social media also play a pivotal role in bringing aid to victims of crisis and disaster.

Dana M. Greene
University of North Carolina

See Also: Crisis Communications; Disaster Declaration; Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA); Social Media.

Further Readings

Illinois General Assembly. “Illinois Compiled Statutes.” http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/ilcs3.asp?ActID=368&ChapterID=5 (Accessed June 2012).

State of Alaska Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management. “Ready Alaska.” http://ready.alaska.gov/community_services/secclevels.htm (Accessed June 2012).

Tierney, Kathleen J., Michael K. Lindell, and Ronald W. Perry. Facing the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness and Response in the United States. Washington, DC: John Henry Press, 2001.

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Air Traffic Control

Because a crisis is considered to be an unexpected event of catastrophic proportions, air traffic control would seem to be an occupation with an extremely high potential for such occurrences. It is true that the potential exists. However, almost every action an air traffic controller takes works toward preventing the development of a crisis situation. In the event of a crisis that exceeds the mental or physical ability of the controller to actually control, such as a catastrophic mechanical failure of an aircraft, it is the controllers’ job to protect the remaining aircraft under their control from becoming involved. Because of the nature of the work, air traffic controllers must remain completely focused on their traffic picture. Controllers cannot be distracted simply because the likelihood or potential for an emergency aircraft exists. When it does happen, the controllers must exercise their training, judgment, and experience to manage the situation to the best of their ability.

Training to Prepare

Regardless of the profession, the most effective way to prepare for the management of a crisis is training. To be most effective, the training should be of the highest possible fidelity. The military forces call it “training as you fight.” The conditions should be as realistic as possible. This is important in order to elicit the same level of emotions and response that an individual would experience under real-time emergency or crisis conditions. This provides an individual with the optimum conditions to develop the skills required to make the decisions and to take the actions to head off or to mitigate the effects of such an event.

Air traffic controllers begin early with the training process. The vast majority of controllers are graduates of Air Traffic–Collegiate Training Initiative (AT–CTI) schools. These are colleges and universities selected by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to provide training to undergraduate students attending these institutions. The training includes classroom lectures, laboratory simulations, and assessments of their performance.

Upon graduation, the students are hired by the FAA and attend the Air Traffic Control Academy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. There the new employees receive additional training by the FAA to prepare them for the type of air traffic control facility to which they will be assigned.

Once they graduate from the academ...

Table of contents

• Cover page
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of Articles
• Reader’s Guide
• About the Editors
• List of Contributors
• Introduction
• VOLUME ONE
• VOLUME TWO
• Glossary
• Resource Guide
• Appendix
• Index
• Photo Credits