Wiley Not-for-Profit GAAP 2011

Interpretation and Application of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles

Richard F. Larkin, Marie DiTommaso

• Publisher: Wiley
• Year: 2011
• ISBN:
  9781118060087
• Edition: 8
• Topic: Study Aids
• Subtopic: CPA (Certified Public Accountant) Study Guides

The most practical, authoritative guide to not-for-profit GAAP

Wiley Not-for-Profit GAAP 2011 is a comprehensive, easy-to-use guide to the accounting and financial reporting principles used by not-for-profit organizations. Written with the needs of the financial statement preparer, user, and attestor in mind, this guide provides a complete review of the authoritative accounting literature that impacts all types of not-for-profit organizations. At the same time, Wiley Not-for-Profit GAAP 2011 features many examples and illustrations that will assist professionals in applying authoritative literature to real-life situations.

• Easy-to-use information that enables users to find needed information quickly
• Coverage of accounting principles specifically related to not-for-profit organizations, as well as accounting principles applicable to all types of organizations
• Specific coverage of accounting issues for different types of not-for-profit organizations
• A comprehensive disclosure checklist that helps financial statement preparers and attestors ensure that all disclosures required by GAAP have been considered
• Many examples and illustrations that make putting accounting theory into practice an easy task

Destined to become the reference you keep at your side, Wiley Not-for-Profit GAAP 2011 strives to be a thorough, reliable reference that nonprofit accounting professionals will use constantly.

PART 1

OVERVIEW OF NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS

1

OVERVIEW OF NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS

PERSPECTIVE AND ISSUES

Not-for-profit organizations represent a significant portion of the economy of the United States. Over one million of these organizations provide almost every conceivable type of service from education to politics, from social services to country clubs, and from religious to research organizations. The number and importance of these organizations to the overall US economy continues to grow. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) defines not-for-profit organizations by distinguishing them from profit organizations. It defines not-for-profit organizations as entities that possess the following characteristics not usually found in other organizations:

1. They receive contributions from significant resource providers who do not expect a commensurate or proportionate monetary return.

2. They operate for purposes other than to make a profit.

3. There is an absence of ownership interests like those of business enterprises.

NOTE: Item 1. above describes transactions that are sometimes called “nonexchange” transactions. In a typical contribution to a not-for-profit organization, the giver (donor) and the receiver (the not-for-profit organization) do not exchange items of equivalent value—the not-for-profit organization receives the majority of the value in the actual transaction. The donor compensates for this difference by obtaining value separate from the transaction, such as through a tax deduction that it is likely to receive, recognition, goodwill, or simply a good feeling about supporting a cause that the donor believes is worthwhile.

While not-for-profit organizations share many of the same accounting principles as commercial enterprises, their accounting and financial reporting is quite unique because the focus of financial reporting for not-for-profit organizations is not on the measurement of net income. Reflecting this, and other differences, the FASB has issued some pronouncements specifically affecting the accounting and financial reporting of not-for-profits. In addition, the application of the FASB’s other accounting standards to not-for-profit organizations typically requires some modification for applying those standards to not-for-profit organizations because the primary focus of financial reporting for not-for-profit organizations is not on the measurement of net income or comprehensive income.

Typically, not-for-profit organizations are controlled by boards of directors composed of individuals who generally volunteer their time. The size of not-for-profit organizations varies greatly. A small not-for-profit organization may have no paid staff; all functions may be performed by a governing board and volunteers. On the other hand, some not-for-profit organizations are quite large with hundreds or even thousands of employees, such as a university, a health-related research association, or a large cultural organization such as a museum. When a small, newly formed organization becomes large enough or complex enough in operation to require it, the board may delegate either limited or broad operating responsibility to a part-time or full-time paid executive. This executive may be given any one of many alternative titles—president, executive director, administrator, manager, etc. Regardless of the size of the not-for-profit organization, the board will usually appoint one of its own part-time volunteer members as treasurer. In most cases, the treasurer is second in importance only to the chairperson of the board because the ability of the organization to carry out its programs is based upon strong oversight and administration of its finances.

Every board member has a fiduciary responsibility for all of the affairs of the organization, including finances. While the treasurer may be charged with paying special attention to this area, this does not excuse any board member from exercising diligent oversight in the finance, as well as all other areas of operation.

NOTE: In many instances, the board member designated as treasurer is a businessperson who is active in both professional and community affairs and has only a limited amount of time to devote to the organization. Therefore, financial awareness from the rest of the board is necessary as is the appropriate development of a financial function within the organization that has the appropriate skill set given the size of the organization.

The treasurer has significant responsibilities, including the following:

1. Keeping financial records

2. Preparing accurate and meaningful financial statements

3. Budgeting and anticipating financial problems

4. Safeguarding and managing the organization’s financial assets

5. Complying with federal and state reporting requirements

While this list certainly is not all-inclusive, most of the financial problems the treasurer will face are associated with these five major areas.

In the public company commercial accounting environment, the role of the Board of Directors (including Board members who are part of an organization’s Audit Committee) has come under close scrutiny recently. This scrutiny has a number of different causes, but certainly the inappropriate (or perceived inappropriate) application of accounting principles by a number of these public companies can be described as one of the more important factors leading to this scrutiny.

While the circumstances receiving public attention relate primarily to public companies, not-for-profit organizations are not immune to the misapplication of accounting principles. Boards of directors, management, and independent auditors of not-for-profit organizations must be vigilant to ensure that accounting principles used are appropriate and are appropriately applied. In addition to meeting the “letter of the law” as found in various accounting standards, not-for-profit organizations must ensure that the applications of generally accepted accounting principles to their financial statements results in statements that truly do present fairly the activities and financial position of the organization.

Not-for-profit organizations that are large enough to be required by the laws and regulations of the state in which they are located to have their financial statements audited each year (or in some cases compiled or reviewed) are increasingly establishing audit committees to oversee this obligation. Generally the audit committee members represent a subgroup of the members of the board of directors, although sometimes nonboard members are invited to join audit committees.

Audit committees generally concern themselves with ensuring the integrity of the financial reporting process of the not-for-profit organization by understanding and overseeing the organization’s internal control, internal audit function (if any), financial reporting process, and engaging the independent certified public accountant that will audit the financial statements. Audit committees should have a direct relationship with the independent certified public accountant in terms of planning the audit, reviewing the results of the audit and addressing how the not-for-profit organization responds to any recommendations that the independent auditor makes as a by-product of the audit.

Key Differences between Not-for-Profit and Profit Organizations

One of the principal differences between not-for-profit and profit organizations is that they have different reasons for their existence. In oversimplified terms, it might be said that the ultimate objective of a commercial organization is to realize net profits for its owners through the provision of some product or performance of some service wanted by other people, whereas the ultimate objective of a not-for-profit organization is to meet some socially desirable need of the community or its members.

Like any organization, a not-for-profit organization should have sufficient resources to carry out its objectives. However, there is no real need or justification for “making a profit” (having an excess of revenue over expenses for a year) or having an excess of assets over liabilities at the end of a year beyond that which is needed to provide a reasonable cushion or reserve against a rainy day or to be able to take advantage of an unexpected opportunity. While a prudent board of a not-for-profit organization should plan to provide for the future, the principal objective of the board is to ensure fulfillment of the programmatic functions for which the organization was founded. A surplus or profit, per se, is only incidental. That said, larger not-for-profit organizations sometimes borrow funds, and often the lender imposes certain financial criteria as a condition for the loan (usually called debt covenants) which can make attention to reported results important.

Instead of profit, many not-for-profit organizations are concerned with the size of their cash and investment balances. They can continue to exist only so long as they have sufficient cash resources to provide for their programs. Thus the financial statements of not-for-profit organizations often emphasize the liquid financial resources of the organization. Commercial organizations are also very much concerned with cash, but if they are profitable they will probably be able to finance their cash needs through loans or from investors. Their principal concern is profitability and this means that commercial accounting emphasizes the matching of revenues and costs.

The nature of most not-for-profit organizations’ operations is that they receive most of their revenues from contributions (rather than receiving fees for services). This means of receiving revenues gives a not-for-profit organization an important fiduciary responsibility for the funds that it receives. This responsibility is why donors to a not-for-profit organization are significant users of the financial statements of not-for-profit organizations.

NOTE: For example, if a customer goes into a hardware store and buys a gallon of paint for $20, the customer really isn’t concerned with what the hardware store does with the $20 or how it controls and accounts for the money. On the other hand, when a donor puts a $5 bill in a cash collection canister for the local children’s soccer league, the donor is very interested in knowing that the $5 actually gets to the soccer league, that most of the $5 is spent on soccer programs instead of administrative costs, and that the $5 is spent conservatively and appropriately (i.e., not on extravagant meals for the league’s board meetings or travel to World Cup games). Many of the financial reporting principles and practices that are described throughout this book are aimed at meeting some of these very basic, but very important, needs of donors to not-for-profit organizations.

Not-for-profit organizations also usually have a responsibility to account for specific funds that they have received. This responsibility includes accounting for certain specific funds that have been given for use in a particular project, for a particular constituency or for a specified period of time. In some cases, donors provide not-for-profit organizations with resources in the form of an endowment, in which the not-for-profit organization must maintain the principal or corpus of the gift in perpetuity and only use the investment earnings in support of its programs. Emphasis must also be placed on accountability and stewardship of these specific types of resources in addition to the general fiduciary aspects discussed above.

NOTE: Many times, not-for-profit organizations receive from donors gifts that are restricted for a specific purpose. This would sometimes require segregation of th...