1
Culture and Revolution: The Story of Toussaint Louverture
Blood of a slave, heart of a king.
âNas
After I sold my company Opsware to Hewlett-Packard in 2007 and helped with the transition, I had nothing to do. As an entrepreneur, I had trained myself to think in contrarian ways. The secret to finding a breakthrough idea, as Peter Thiel says, is that you have to believe something that nobody else does. So I started thinking about ideas that everyone believes. The first that came to mind was âSlavery was so incredibly horrible that itâs almost unimaginable that it existed at such scale.â What was the contrarian point of view?
What if it were more shocking that slavery ever ended? As absurd as that sounded, once I dug into the matter, I felt like I might be onto something. Slavery had been around since the beginning of recorded history. It was endorsed by all the major religions; long and detailed sections of the Bible and the Koran are dedicated to it. In the 1600s, more than half of the worldâs population was enslaved. How did it ever end? The stamping out of slavery is one of humanityâs great stories. And the best story within that story is the Haitian Revolution.
In our long history, there has been only one successful slave revolution that led to an independent state. There were surely uprisings by the slaves of the Han Dynasty and the Christian slaves of the Ottoman Empire, and there are numerous accounts of rebellions by some of the ten million Africans held in bondage during the slave trade that thrived from the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries. But only one revolt succeeded. Certainly, strong motivation fueled every attemptâthere is no more inspiring cause than freedom. So why only one victory?
Slavery chokes the development of culture by dehumanizing its subjects, and broken cultures donât win wars. As a slave, none of your work accrues to you. You have no reason to care about doing things thoughtfully and systematically when you and your family members can be sold or killed at any moment. To keep you from learning about other ways of life, communicating with other slaves, or knowing what your masters are up to, you are forbidden to learn to read and have no ready tools for accumulating and storing knowledge. You can be raped, whipped, or dismembered at your captorâs pleasure. This constellation of atrocities leads to a culture with low levels of education and trust and a short-term focus on survivalânone of which help in building a cohesive fighting force.
So how did one man, born a slave, reprogram slave culture? How did Toussaint Louverture build an army of slaves in Saint-Domingue (the prerevolutionary name of Haiti) into a fighting force so fearsome it defeated Spain, Britain, and Franceâthe greatest military forces in Europe? How did this slave army inflict more casualties on Napoleon than he would suffer at Waterloo?
You might suspect that slavery was less brutal in Saint-Domingue than elsewhere. Did Louverture have a particularly easy go of it?
Nope. During the slave-trade era, fewer than 500,000 slaves were brought to the United States, while about 900,000 were introduced to Saint-Domingue. Yet by 1789, the United States contained nearly 700,000 slaves and Saint-Domingue just 465,000. In other words, the death rate on Saint-Domingue overwhelmed the birth rate. The island was a slaughterhouse.
Slaves in Saint-Domingue were treated with almost incomprehensible brutality. C. L. R. James describes it in his masterpiece, The Black Jacobins:
Whipping was interrupted in order to pass a piece of hot wood on the buttocks of the victim; salt, pepper, citron, cinders, aloes, and hot ashes were poured on the bleeding wounds. Mutilations were common, limbs, ears and sometimes the private parts, to deprive them of the pleasures which they could indulge in without expense. Their masters poured burning wax on their arms and hands and shoulders, emptied the boiling cane sugar over their heads, burned them alive, roasted them on slow fires, filled them with gunpowder and blew them up with a match; buried them up to the neck and smeared their heads with sugar that the flies might devour them.
This torturous environment led to a predictably abject and suspicious culture. Black slaves and mulattoes hated each other. The man of color who was nearly white despised the man of color who was half white, who in turn despised the man of color who was a quarter white, and so on.
Whatâs more, the military power poised to crush any rebellion was enormous. Saint-Domingue provided a third of the worldâs sugar and half of its coffee; it was the most profitable colony in the world, and therefore of massive strategic interest. Every empire wanted to control it.
So no, this environment was not ideal for rebellion.
Louvertureâs rebellion was no mere slave revolt, but a much more complex disruption premised on meticulous military strategy and aimed at lasting change. Considered a genius even by his enemies, Louverture was able to blend the best, most useful elements from slave culture and from the colonial European culture that had enslaved himâand to mix in his own brilliant cultural insights. The resulting hybrid culture inspired a ferocious army, a cunning diplomacy, and a farsighted perspective on economics and governance.
Who Was Toussaint Louverture?
Louverture was born into slavery on the BrĂ©da estate sugar plantation in Saint-Domingue in, we think, 1743. Much of his personal history is fragmentary and uncertainâno one bothered to keep detailed records about obscure slaves. Historians also disagree about many of the turning points in the countryâs revolution, agreeing only that its leader was an extraordinary man.
As a child, Louverture was so frail his parents called him âSickly Stickâ and did not expect him to live. Yet by age twelve, he had surpassed all the boys on the plantation with his athletic feats. In time he became known as the colonyâs greatest horseman. Even as he neared sixty, he often rode 125 miles in a day.
Louverture was just five feet two and by no means handsome. Laconic, with a stern, probing glance, he was immensely energetic and focused. He slept two hours a night and could live for days on a few bananas and a glass of water. His education, position, and character gave him tremendous prestige among his fellow slaves long before the revolution. He never doubted that his destiny was to be their leader.
While still a teenager, he was made caretaker of the estateâs mules and oxenâa post usually held by a white man. Louverture seized this rare opportunity to educate himself in his free time and to read through his masterâs library, including Julius Caesarâs Commentaries and AbbĂ© Raynalâs Histoire des deux Indes, or History of two Indies, an encyclopedic account of trade between Europe and the Far East. Caesarâs work helped him understand politics and the art of war, and Raynalâs gave him a thorough grounding in the economics of the region and of Europe.
But his education and position did not exempt him from the fundamental indignity of being black. One day, as he was returning from Mass carrying his prayer book, a white man took notice. Louverture would recall that the man âbroke my head with a wooden stick while telling me âdo you not know that a negro should not read?ââ Louverture apologized and stumbled home. He kept the vest soaked with his blood as a reminder of the incident. Years later, after the rebellion began, he met his tormenter again and, his biographer Philippe Girard writes with satisfaction, âkilled him on the spot.â
The estateâs attorney, François Bayon de Libertat, recognized Louvertureâs abilities and made him coachman. Around 1776, he freed Louverture; Louverture was now paid to drive Libertatâs coach. At the time, fewer than one in a thousand black men were set free. The father of the Haitian Revolution earned his freedom by forming a special bond with a white man.
Louverture used every carriage ride with Libertat to expand his network, making contact with nearly all of his future allies. The rides also enabled him first to understand, and then to master, French colonial ways. Louverture gradually came to a realization that no one else in colonial Saint-Domingue had arrived at: culture, not color, determined behavior.
One astonishing demonstration of this truth was that after heâd been freed, Louverture purchased slaves, usually to free them in turn. But he also strove to get ahead in the colonial manner, the only manner available to him at that point: off of slave labor. In 1779, in a brief and unsuccessful attempt to make money, he leased a coffee plantation worked by thirteen slaves. One of them was Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who in later years would become his second in commandâand then go on to betray him.
If there was a motivational trigger for Louverture to turn from commerce to statecraft, perhaps it came in 1784, when he read a famous passage written by AbbĂ© Raynal, a proponent of liberty who hoped for a slave revolt: âA courageous chief only is wanted. Where is he, that great man whom Nature owes to her vexed, oppressed, and tormented children? Where is he?â According to one account, Louverture read this passage over and over, dreaming that he might be that courageous chief.
Louvertureâs Rise
Once news of the French Revolution of 1789 reached the island, insurrection was in the air. The initial rebellion on the Manquets plantation in 1791 stirred up slaves on the surrounding plantations, and within a few years the insurrectionary force grew to fifty thousand men, one hundred times the size of the largest slave revolt in U.S. history.
Louverture had known of and perhaps helped shape plans for the uprising, but he waited to see how it would go, only joining in a month after it began. The colonyâs political situation was extremely complicated, with numerous factions, parties, and shifting alliances, and it was unclear what would happen on your plantation next week, let alone to the whole island over time.
When Louverture joined the rebels he was about forty-seven and already known as âOld Toussaint.â Within a few months he had appointed himself brigadier general and was leading one of the three chief rebel groups. To build support, Louverture implied that he was acting on behalf of the French king, Louis XVI, who, he said, had issued him a document promising the rebels three days of rest a week in exchange for their efforts. He was able to pull off this ruse because almost none of his followers could read and write.
Between 1791 and 1793, he and the rebels made such progress that France dispatched eleven thousand troops to hold them backâmore than the nation sent abroad during the U.S. War of Independence.
After Louis XVI was guillotined in Paris in 1793, the British and Spanish invaded Saint-Domingue, each hoping to seize the prize while France was preoccupied. Once Spain declared war on France, Louverture went to the Spanish commander and offered to integrate his six hundred men into the Spanish army, which other rebellious slave groups were also joining. And so Louverture became a colonel in the Spanish army, fighting the French.
The following year, seeing an advantage for himself and his troops, Louverture defected to the French army. Within a year, he and his men, now five thousand strong, had retaken almost all of the French towns he had just conquered for Spain, and subdued several rebel groups still allied with the Spanish. These victories, in concert with military setbacks in Europe, forced Spain to sue for peace. Louverture had defeated his first European superpower.
Next he faced the British, who had sent two la...