Carbon Nanomaterials Based on Graphene Nanosheets
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Carbon Nanomaterials Based on Graphene Nanosheets

Ling Bing Kong, Ling Bing Kong

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eBook - ePub

Carbon Nanomaterials Based on Graphene Nanosheets

Ling Bing Kong, Ling Bing Kong

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About This Book

Since the discovery of graphene, it has become one of the most widely and extensively studied materials. This book aims to summarize the progress in synthesis, processing, characterization and applications of a special group of nanocarbon materials derived from graphene or graphene related derivatives by using various strategies in different forms. More specifically, three forms of macrosized materials are presented, i.e., one-dimension or 1D (fibers, wires, yarns, streads, etc.), two-dimension or 2D (films, membranes, papers, sheets, etc.) and three-dimension or 3D (bulk, hydrogels, aerogels, foams, sponges, etc.). Seven chapters are included with the first chapter serving to introduce the concept, definition, and nomenclature of graphene, graphene oxide and their derivatives. The main topics are covered in Chapters 2?7. Although they have coherent connections, each chapter of them is designed such that they can be studied independently.

The target readers of this book include undergraduate students, postgraduate students, researchers, designers, engineers, professors, and program/project managers from the fields of materials science and engineering, applied physics, chemical engineering, biomaterials, materials manufacturing and design, institutes, and research founding agencies.

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Information

Publisher
CRC Press
Year
2017
ISBN
9781315353500
Subtopic
Chimie
Edition
1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Ling Bing Kong

School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

1.1. Graphene and Graphene Oxide

Graphene is one of the most popular two-dimensional (2D) materials, which has attracted considerable attention all around the world. Graphene was initially used to refer to an isolated single atom thick carbon sheet [1], while it is used now to represent all 2D sheet-like or flake-like carbon materials [2, 3]. Besides monolayer (single atomic layer) graphene, ultrathin multilayered carbon materials derived from graphite through exfoliation are also called graphene or graphene-based materials. Moreover, graphene oxide and various chemically modified graphenes have also emerged in the open literature [3]. Graphene and graphene oxide, as atomically-thin precursors, can be stacked, folded, crumpled or pillared into various three-dimensional (3D) architectures [4, 5]. There are also one-dimensional (1D) and 2D (different from the 2D mentioned before) carbon materials based on graphene or graphene oxide. Therefore, it is necessary to have a widely accepted definition for graphene.

1.2. Principles for Definition

There are several principles that have been used to define graphene and graphene related nanocarbons, which have been described in detail in Ref. [2]. A brief discussion on each principle will be presented in this section. The first principle is to use specific names to describe the different types of graphene related materials, instead of simply using the word-graphene. However, the fact is that different graphene-based materials are simply named as graphene, without differentiation. The second issue is distinguishing between graphene and graphene layer. Graphene layer was initially used to refer to the carbon atomic sheets with sp2 hybridization [6, 7], but is now being used in the literature for isolated graphene [1].
The next principle is to take into consideration the lateral dimensions, which could range from tens of nanometers to micrometers and even to macroscopic dimensions. The size of lateral dimensions has an important effect when the graphene or graphene related materials are used in composites to achieve desired electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity, i.e., the percolation thresholds. Other properties that are closely related to lateral size include band gaps, cell interactions, and so on. Thickness that is actually the number of atomic carbon layers is also a very important variable, which therefore should be stated as accurately as possible, in order to ensure that the related results or data will be more meaningful.

1.3. Definitions of Graphene and Graphene Related Items

Accordingly, there have been various terms for graphene and graphene related materials, which also follow Ref. [2].
Graphene is defined as a single-layer atomic carbon sheet, with a perfect hexagonal configuration of sp2 carbon atoms, which is either isolated free-standing or deposited on a substrate. The lateral dimensions can vary in range from several nanometers to micrometers for free-standing graphene and even to the macroscale for deposits on substrates.
Graphene layer means a single-layer atomic carbon sheet with hexagonal configuration of sp2 carbon atoms, which is only present within a given carbon material structure, having either 3D ordering (graphitic) or other (e.g., turbostratic or rotationally faulted) characteristics. Therefore, it is a building block (unit) of a certain structure.
Turbostratic carbon is used to describe three-dimensional configurations, with sp2-bonded carbon atoms, but without clearly defined atomic carbon layers. The name is a combination of the words “turbo” (rotated) and “strata” (layer), therefore it is also known as rotationally faulted.
Bilayer graphene and trilayer graphene stand for 2D or sheet-like layered materials that contain two (2) and three (3) stacked graphene layers, respectively, which could be further specified as “AB-stacked bilayer graphene” or “rotationally faulted trilayer graphene”.
Multilayer graphene (MLG) is similar to the above graphenes, but the number of atomic carbon sheets is between 2 and 10, which are well-defined and tightly stacked with an extended lateral dimension.
Few-layer graphene (FLG) is actually a group of multilayer graphene, with 2–5 layers of graphene.
Graphite nanoplates, graphite nanosheets and graphite nanoflakes include 2D graphite materials with stackings of ABA or ABCA, with a thickness and/or lateral dimension of less than 100 nm.
Exfoliated graphite refers to multilayer structured items, which are made by partially exfoliating graphite into thin multilayer sheets, while still retaining the 3D crystal stacking of graphite, by using thermal, chemical or mechanical methods.
Graphene nanosheet refers to a single atomic carbon sheet, with carbon atoms arranged hexagonally, with sp2 hybridization, which is either free-standing or deposited on substrates. According to the definition of nanomaterials, it should have a lateral dimension of < 100 nm. However, graphene nanosheet or nanosheets have been widely used in the literature to represent all 2D graphene materials, and are used similarly in this book.
Graphene microsheet refers to a single-layer atomic carbon sheet with sp2-bonded carbon atoms arranged hexagonally, which is either free-standing or deposited on substrates, with a lateral dimension ranging from 100 nm to 100 μm.
Graphene nanoribbon is a single-layer atomic carbon strip, with sp2-bonded carbon atoms having a hexagonal configuration, which is either free-standing or deposited on substrates. The width should be less than 100 nm.
Graphene quantum dots (GQD) is an alternative name for graphene nanosheets or few-layer graphene nanosheets, with lateral dimensions of < 10 nm (or average of 5 nm).
Graphene oxide (GO) stands for all the graphenes, which are chemically derived through oxidation and exfoliation, in which the basal planes contain a large amount of oxygen, in the form of oxygen containing functional groups.
Graphite oxide is a bulk solid made by oxidizing graphite through functionalization of the basal planes, with the interlayer spacing expanded to a certain degree. It is also known as expanded graphite.
Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) is the product of graphene oxide that is reduced by using various reducing methods, such as chemical, thermal, microwave, photo-chemical, photo-thermal and microbial/bacterial; the graphene oxide is reduced by eliminating oxygen or oxygen containing functional groups. rGO has characteristics similar to that of graphene.
Graphenization is used to describe the processes that are used to prepare graphene layers, either in 2D or 3D forms. Two related terms are (i) carbonization, meaning the conversion of organic materials into a carbonaceous solid, and (ii) graphitization, referring to the crystallization of carbonaceous materials into 3D ordered structures.
Graphene materials, graphene-based materials, graphene nanomaterials, graphene-family nanomaterials are also used to imply more generally the collection of the above discussed 2D materials that contain the word graphene.
Graphenic carbon materials represent the broadest class of carbonaceous solids that are formed by elemental carbon with bounding of sp2-hybridization, in either 2D or 3D forms.
There are also numerous ways that have been used in the open literature to represent newly emerged materials based on or related to graphene, in one way or another. Examples are briefly discussed below.
Graphene oxide nanosheet is graphene oxide (monolayer) with a lateral dimension of < 100 nm, according to the definition of nanotechnology. However, in the literature, graphene oxide nanosheet or graphene oxide nanosheets are also used to stand for those with a lateral size of > 100 nm.
Few-layer graphene nanoribbons belong to the category of graphene nanoribbons, with 2–5 atomic carbon layers.
Multilayer graphene oxide film refers to a multilayer structure with restacking of graphene oxide monolayer sheets that are deposited on substrates. A similar term is graphene film.
There are also some terms and usages that appear in the literature but do not follow the above discussed principles in the nomenclature, which are presented as follows.
Graphite layer is a term that is not recommended because graphite is usually used to refer to the 3D crystals. Therefore, graphene layer is a more appropriate term to replace graphite layer.
Graphene nanosheet is similar to graphene oxide nanosheet or reduced graphene nanosheet. Although it is not recommended to use this term in Ref. [2], its usage can be quite frequently found in the literature, while it will be used in this book.
Graphene nanoplates, graphene nanoplatelets: these terms are used for some industry products with microscale lateral dimension, but are not recommended in our scientific nomenclature for reasons given above. “Graphene” does not need the prefix “nano” to indicate thinness, and instead “nano” used in this way should indicate the lateral dimension.
Graphitic is also not recommended in Ref. [2], which is not adopted in this book.
Graphene materials can also be incorporated or hybridized in various ways with various other components, thus leading to additional terms, such as folded, wrinkled, activated, decorated or functionalized [8]. One group of such materials, i.e., hybrids with inorganic components, will be discussed in detail in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 in this book.

References

[1] Novoselov KS, Geim AK, Morozov SV, Jiang D, Zhang Y, Dubonos SV et al. Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films. Science. 2004; 306: 666–9.
[2] Bianco A, Cheng HM, Enoki T, Gogotsi Y, Hurt RH, Koratkar N et al. All in the graphene family - A recommended nomenclature for two-dimensional carbon materials. Carbon. 2013; 65: 1–6.
[3] Geim AK, Novoselov KS. The rise of graphene. ...

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