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Multimedia Narratives
The âSnow Fallâ Revolution and Beyond
After the New York Timesâ late 2012 publication of âSnow Fall: Avalanche at Tunnel Creekâ dramatically inaugurated a new era of immersive reading online, digital publishers recognized the real reason why longform had failed to thrive in the early 2000s. âWe always used to say you couldnât read longform online,â according to Rob Orchard, editor of the highly acclaimed British quarterly Delayed Gratification. Because early news templates divided stories into multiple pages to maximize advertising spaceâwhich left the internet itself teeming with shallow content and distraction technologies vying for the readerâs attentionâthe assumption was âyou needed print in order to concentrate.â Now as new digital affordances have given rise to the latest wave of enthralling multimedia narratives that capture rather than divide reader attention, âthatâs not the case anymore,â as Orchard notes, âand I think it was a very simple question of getting the design rightâ (Kuntze 2016).
The early internetâs ad-laden click-heavy customs were indeed anathema to deep reading online. But since the Timesâ breakthrough, a profusion of immersive media products leveraging its signature self-contained design have emerged with embedded photos, maps, and videos in app-like environments. Their multimedia elements are now integrated with written text, working in concert to intensify reader concentration (Dowling and Vogan 2015). Such advances in digital design have delivered precisely the opposite of what we have feared about the death of deep reading in the digital age. Contrary to what we have assumed, technological improvements borrowing heavily from the visual storytelling techniques of cinema have deepened the way we engage with narrative, transforming news consumption from article reading to an immersive multimedia experience.
Digital longformâs repertoire of rhetorical expression has never been so rich, and thus suggests how âThe diversity of games that narrative can play with the resources of its medium is one of the many reasons that make the intersection of narratology and media studies, an area still largely unexplored, into a productive field of investigationâ (Ryan 2005: 21). This chapter tracks the fierce evolution of digital longform, also referred to as multimedia features and digital news packages, which has joined podcasting as one of the fastest-growing online genres of the twenty-first century. Design innovations have transformed both digital publishing and online reading, which has revolutionized written text by wedding it toârather than pitting it in opposition againstâgraphics, sound, photography, and video to realize unprecedented powers of expression through immersive storytelling.
Blurred Boundaries and Broken Rules
The digital production of the New York Timesâ âSnow Fallâ epitomizes the recent departure from the print tradition of the single-byline story. John Branch acknowledged his debt to the team of graphic designers, computer engineers, photographers, videographers, and data visualization specialists who contributed to the Pulitzer Prize-winning piece (Q. and A. 2012) that was lauded for its âdeft integration of multimedia elementsâ (as quoted in Haughney 2013). Branch, of course, relied on his team of producers not only to create each visual elementâfrom Swiss Institute scientists contributing data sets on avalanche dynamics to graphic artists designing digitally animated mapsâbut also a staff of editors to integrate them into a coherent narrative. âSnow Fallâ designer Graham Robertsâs description of the project as the employment of âa new format of publishing longform stories that attempts to seamlessly combine the written story with multimedia elementsâ (Roberts 2013) indicates the vast amount of editorial intervention necessary for the successful synthesis of those elements. Platforms such as Byliner and Atavist still market celebrity authors, such as John Krakauer and Michael Sharer, thus adhering to traditional single-contributor bylines. The persistence of journalistic tradition of single bylines indeed earned Branch most of the notoriety for âSnow Fall,â as he was the named recipient of the Pulitzer, whereas Roberts remained relatively anonymous among the team of other designers and computer engineers.
The increasingly collaborative nature of online narrative journalism suggests a shift away from the assumption that fine storytelling is necessarily the product of a single creative genius or lone-wolf reporter operating in isolation (Kovacs 2016). This opens up exciting new possibilities for creative collaboration, as Branch recognized of the monumental achievement of âSnow Fallâ (Q. and A. 2012). Foucaultâs âWhat is an Author?â and Roland Barthesâs âThe Death of the Authorâ help illuminate this shift toward the collaborative production of literary journalism, which now weds written and visual aesthetics with computer engineering design. Just as production processes are becoming more networked as the products themselves become increasingly multimodal, their consumption has become distinctly more social. Narrative journalism in the digital age is now more mobile, sharable and open to discussion than ever, as âaudiences show an increasing preference for online content,â making the latest serious journalism either a combination of online and traditional or only online (Bakker 2014: 596). The socialization of literary journalistic production has become radically pluralized much in the way that readership has through communities such as Longreads.
The pastiche of sources any author inheritsâidentified by Roland Barthes (1977), who deconstructs the romantic myth of the isolated writer as individual geniusâpoints to the wealth of influences and data the writer must patch together. Like Barthesâs concept of the author as the sum total of his/her intellectual inheritance, craftily rearranged in a unique expression, so too is the longform journalist in the digital age not only drawing from narrative and aesthetic precedentâwhether reflecting or refracting itâbut producing in a digital environment that requires teamwork and collaboration with data analysts and designers. âTo give a text an author,â writes Barthes (1977), âis to impose a limit on the text, to furnish it with a final signified, to close the writing. When the author has been found, the text is âexplainedââvictory to the criticâ (147). It is telling indeed that the myth of single authorship has now yielded to Webby and Addy awards going to teams rather than individuals. The internet has destabilized the professional identity of narrative journalism, steering it closer to a model of film production, in which various designations including screenwriting and directing receive recognition rather than a single isolated figure.
In addition to the blurring of the category of solo bylines into production teams, the strict division separating business from advertising in news organizations has also eroded with the advent of new digital forms (Banet-Weiser 2012; Einstein 2016). Joe Sexton, who initiated âSnow Fallâ from the sports desk of the Times, earned accolades despite claiming to have little technological savvy. Yet whatever digital expertise Sexton lacked, his business acumen in promoting the piece was strong enough to lead him to Twitter as the promotional medium to spark pre-publicity interest in âSnow Fall.â In an interview at Harvard University, Sexton recounted how he had violated several cardinal rules of the profession in order to publish the piece. In the years prior to the project, he had been experimenting with alternative storytelling as a method of promoting and marketing the Times. Among other bold deviations from convention was his placement of a massive photo across the fold of the sports section depicting Walden Pond at dusk with a lone long-distance swimmer gliding through the glass-like water in the foreground corner. The reflective feature profile of Olympian Alex Meyer, a particularly Thoreauvian and self-reliant member of the Harvard swim team, defied the standard coverage of recent scores and highlights, venturing into the obscure yet rich territory of more thoughtful reflective content (Crouse 2011). This ambitious maverick project foreshadowed the colossal one ahead.
The stories Sexton ran began stretching the limits of not only the sports section, but also the standard divisions of news categories. âHow are you going to fit 16,000 words in six chapters on a ski tragedy,â of three backcountry skiers who lost their lives in an avalanche in western Washington, âin your story? What section will that be in?â Sextonâs colleagues asked him. âForget the sections,â he replied. âWe are going to create our own section.â In the process, Sexton had made a crucial administrative step allowing for his production team to reinvent ossified routines of journalistic production by breaking âevery rule at the New York Times that existed and didnât existâ in this âunnecessarily restrictiveâ news organization he described as âsimultaneously majestic and hopelessly f---d up.â Graphics editor Steve Duenes showed Sexton a story by ESPN on Doc Ellisâs no-hitter he pitched for the Pittsburgh Pirates while hallucinating on LSD. After seeing its psychedelic aesthetic expressed through an integrated design featuring elaborate drawings and interactives, Sexton felt emboldened to pursue a similar project (Nieman 2013).
Times upper administration was initially hesitant to enlist their support. Then-editor-in-chief Jill Abramson struggled to justify the story as news, since it was neither political nor had any immediate timely connection to an issue related to the latest headlines, a core journalistic element of even the lengthiest features. Any initial concerns regarding the storyâs departure from traditional definitions of news were soon quelled, however, by the record-breaking reception of the piece. Its 3.5 million page views boasted an average visit that was ten times longer than the industry norm at the time, making it one of the most forwarded pieces in internet history. Abramsonâs internal memo to the Times staff heralded the achievement as âa cool moment in the evolution of our online storytellingâ (Romanesco 2012). According to Sexton, the confluence of image and word was the key to its success. âMy favorite map is the one that enables you to follow individual skiers down Tunnel Creek, and they would move in time with your reading,â a key feature that successfully met the narrative challenge of covering the experiences of sixteen skiers as they outraced the on-rushing avalanche, not knowing how many had survived, unaware until well after the tragedy that three of their group had died. These were âstorytelling challenges far more basic than sexy web-stuffâ (Nieman 2013). The discovery of one of the victims is immortalized in an embedded video shot with a Go-Pro mounted to the helmet of a surviving skier who is overwhelmed with emotion upon finding the metonymic ski pole revealing the location of his companionâs body beneath the snow.
Sexton explained that sequencing and embedding the multimedia elements posed an editorial challenge that was fundamentally narrative rather than purely technological. With proper restraint, a powerfully immersive experience designed to sustain and lengthen reader attention could be achieved. âPart of the rationale for doing it this way was to get away from the distraction of having to leave the written story to go somewhere completely elsewhere and experience a video or a graphic.â Instead the idea was to enable readers âto experience those thingsâat least theoreticallyâseamlesslyâ (Nieman 2013). Indeed, blending those elements into a coherent whole in its own self-contained package carried the benefit of shielding the reader from the distractions of the open web.
This âclosed systemâ is ânon-referentialâ (Lassila-Merisalo 2014) in the sense that it creates a cognitive container characterized by an internally coherent news package. Digital longform maintains the feel of a container associated with print newspapers, in which headlines and visuals are arranged to complement one another, as opposed to the distracting nature of the internet, in which headlines are crafted to vie for attention independently as disaggregated autonomous units circulating online (Dowling and Vogan 2015). Interestingly, âSnow Fallâ reached the majority of its readers as a shared story through social media, and thus as precisely such disaggregated news. Yet unlike the conventional news template, its multimedia were not indiscriminately tacked on, but carefully integrated into the narrative world as a system of mutually reinforcing referents. By circulating mainly as an autonomous story disaggregated from its publisherâs main landing page, âSnow Fallâ represented an ideal opportunity to convey the New York Times brand. Furthermore, its distinct advantage was its vertical rather than horizontally oriented page layout. In digital longform, the visual hierarchy and semantics of multimedia sequencing pull readers down, rather than across, the page to a variety of headlines, so that written and graphic content combine as the main signifying features (Hernandez and Rue 2016; Hiippala 2016).
This immersive designâs cinematic qualities are not without their commercial appeal. In a promotional maneuver common in the film industry yet unprecedented in journalistic media, the Times produced a Hollywood-style trailer to promote âSnow Fall.â Upper administration, however, expressed concern that this first-ever video trailer to promote a single story would only play into the hands of their competitors. âNews organizations are strikingly bad at promoting themselves because they believe itâs somehow untoward or unbecoming as their stock price [plummets],â Sexton recalled. After seeing the trailer, his senior editors advised him not to share any portion of it or âword would get out,â clearly a vestige of a bygone era in which editors feared being scooped. Of course, news of the avalanche had already been covered six months prior by local news media, whose stories circulated globally online when the event occurred. Violating their directive, Sexton resolved to send the trailer out late the night before its scheduled release the next day, allowing the promotional clip roughly thirty hours to go viral and stir a sensation on the internet. The Timesâ reporters boasting the largest following on Twitter, such as Nick Kristof, then tweeted out the news of this revolutionary piece that foretold the future of digital narrative and multimedia storytelling (Nieman 2013).
Sexton confessed that he intentionally had them tweet out the trailer overnight to circumvent his senior editors, who wanted none of this valuable material pre-released. He returned the next morning to find the âsenior editor seething, âWhat the fâdid you do?ââ to which he replied, âI just gave it to the Twitter guys.â Senior management then demanded the entire project be released immediately. However, âthe server they had built for the trailer had collapsed,â and they were unable to release the entire story despite the mounting legions of readers on Twitter clamoring for it. The technical difficulties that caused the delay actually worked inadvertently as an ingenious marketing method to whet the appetite of the audience, thereby increasing demand and circulation through social media prior to the publication of the story by 3PM. âThe clouds had been seeded, people were actually looking forward to something.â But senior management saw Sexton, according to his recollection, âas the most heretical person who ever lived,â absurdly asking, âWhy would we promote our work?â In retrospect, Sexton knew that âHad we just launched it at three that afternoonâ without the Twitter promotional trailer, âit would have looked nice on the homepage and everybody would have felt good about themselves,â but the fanfare would not have reached a fever pitch in anticipation of the release. This release of âSnow Fallâ was the first ever work promoted on Twitter in advance of its publication, now a much more common, if not routine, practice among news organizations intent on generating publicity for a particular feature (Nieman 2013).
Digital longformâs implications for media convergence thus expand beyond the internally coherent multimodal storytelling of its content to its industrial function within the context of the digital environment for news branding promotion. Not only does the piece openly borrow cinematic tropes such as establishing shots and wipe transitions through graphic animated fly-over mapping, looping videos, and parallax scrolling; its pre-publication marketing also deployed a cinematic trailer. But far from entering the film industry, the Times was instead intent on borrowing its narrative power not only to enhance its journalistic storytelling, but to promote its brand. Indeed, Sextonâs concern was to market both âSnow Fallâ and the Times brand. In the process, he had defied two cardinal rules of journalistic practice:...