Stage Lighting

Design Applications and More

Richard E Dunham

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781317204756
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Media & Performing Arts
• Subtopic: Theatre

Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More builds upon the information introduced in Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals to provide an in-depth reference to a number of specialty areas of lighting design, from traditional applications such as drama, dance, and designing for different venues, to more advanced applications such as concert, corporate, film and video, virtual, architectural/landscape, and other forms of entertainment lighting. Each chapter gives the essential background, design practices, and equipment details for each specialization, so readers can make informed decisions and ask informed questions when encountering each field. The book provides insight on the latest technology and includes profiles of prolific designers, such as James Moody, Jeff Ravitz, Alan Adelman, and Paul Gregory. Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More is intended to help lighting designers translate their theatrical skills to other areas of lighting design, and provides guidance on how to take those initial steps into new ventures in their lighting careers.

Chapter 1

Introduction and General Lighting Review

As we begin, it is important to note that Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More is actually the companion book to its partner, Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals. In the first edition, the chapters that form the basis of the material presented in this volume were found in the online chapters. The second edition of Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals is focused primarily on materials found in introductory courses while Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More is focused on a variety of specialized areas of lighting design and is aimed at more advanced readers and use as a personal reference. The content in both books has been updated with new materials and revised to reflect current trends as we have gone through the process of putting together these editions. Regardless of the reader’s level of lighting expertise, they will most likely find materials that speak to their interests and needs in both books. As in the earlier online chapters, it must be made clear that this book provides only an introduction to these specialized areas of lighting design: A reader should go on to the Further Reading lists to obtain more detailed and specific information on these applications before taking on projects in these areas of lighting design.

If the reader is using this book independently of Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals, it would be beneficial to read through this chapter as an introduction to some of the key principles and concepts that relate to light as a general topic and how these materials were presented in the first book. If the reader has used the first book, the following pages can be used as a review of those materials. Overall, this chapter provides a summary of the concepts found in the first three chapters of Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals and will also provide essential information related to how those concepts are applied to the design applications that are found here in Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More.

What Is Light?

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Light is a form of radiant energy that is associated with a given portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum represents all forms of radiant energy. This energy is thought to pulsate outward from a source at the speed of light (186,000 miles/second) in oscillations that create a wavelike effect that forms patterns that may be measured. In fact, the variables that we generally use to describe radiant energy are based on wave theory. Most commonly we make distinctions between different forms of radiant energy through measurements of either frequency (f) or wavelength (λ). These variables are inversely proportional to one another: As frequency increases, the wavelength gets shorter, and as frequency decreases, the wavelength gets longer. The strength or amplitude of the waves is commonly called the intensity (I). In visible light, we often refer to this as the brightness of the light. Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationship between intensity, frequency, and wavelength.

We commonly use “frequency” or “wavelength” to distinguish between different forms of electromagnetic energy. In lighting, we typically use “wavelength” to make a distinction between different colors of light. The range of wavelengths produced by radiant sources is extreme. At one end of the electromagnetic spectrum we find electrical waves with wavelengths measured in miles. The 60-cycle electrical currents used in our homes may have a wavelength of more than 3,000 miles while other forms of electromagnetic radiation are associated with wavelengths so small that a special unit, the angstrom (Å), has been introduced to measure them. One angstrom is equal to 1/254,000,000 of an inch. At the opposite end of the electromagnetic spectrum from electricity are cosmic rays, which may have wavelengths as small as 1/10,000 of an angstrom. The electromagnetic spectrum is a collection of different types of radiant energy that can be specified through their varied wavelengths. What concerns us as lighting designers is a very limited range of wavelengths contained within the electromagnetic spectrum which we commonly refer to as the visible spectrum. This is a collection of wavelengths that can be sensed by the human eye. Figure 1.2 illustrates the relationship between wavelength and the individual classifications of energy that makeup the electromagnetic spectrum.

Figure 1.1 Wave relationships

The visible spectrum can be further broken down into smaller components representing individual colors—each color representing a specific wavelength or frequency of radiant energy. The range of wavelengths generally found within the visible spectrum includes approximately 400 (violet) to 700 (red) nanometers. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. A second manner of expressing wavelength has already been introduced through the measurement known as an angstrom, which is 1/10 of a nanometer. In this case, the visible spectrum would be expressed as having wavelengths in the range of 4,000–7,000 Å.

Figure 1.2 The electromagnetic and visible spectrums

The Controllable Qualities of Light

One of the most difficult tasks for a lighting designer is describing the lighting that they envision for a project. Light is our medium and it cannot be illustrated effectively through means such as models or renderings that other designers may use. Though there are some excellent computer visualizers now in use, they still render light indirectly. There can be a big difference between the lighting that is seen on a computer screen and what actually appears in the theatre. In many cases, people can’t get a true sense of a lighting design until the actual lights (luminaires) are placed, colored, and balanced in the theatre through setting specific brightness levels for the lights. Because of this, several descriptive qualities have been defined to help us communicate with each other about light. The reader needs to be introduced to a vocabulary that enables us to describe light and its associated qualities. These are generally not thought of in terms of quantitative (measurable) elements but are used instead to help us set up a comparison between various lights and lighting effects. While absolutes may come into the discussion, most of these qualities are used solely within a descriptive or comparative basis. These qualities are also universal and can be translated to any field of lighting, whether working in traditional drama or lighting an office tower, garden, or the latest Rolling Stones tour. While there may be slight variations in terminology between lighting disciplines, most designers have come to refer to four primary qualities for describing light. Any light, no matter how produced or modified, can be described through these four attributes: intensity, distribution, color, and movement. As a whole, these are essentially the same qualities that Stanley McCandless described in 1932 when he first wrote A Method of Lighting the Stage.

Intensity

The most easily described quality of light is intensity, or the brightness of the light. While it might be described very specifically and can be evaluated through measurements such as the candela, lumen/lux, or footcandle, it is more often described through a comparative basis. “This light is brighter than that light,” “this light is approximately half the intensity of another light,” or “that light is as bright as the moon” are all examples of this type of comparison. We may also describe intensity by placing it on a relative scale (0–10, where 10 represents the brightest light possible) or percentage scale (0–100%, where 100% represents the highest intensity). Regardless of whether describing a specific level of illumination (i.e., lux or footcandles) or simply describing intensity on a comparative basis, intensity is one of the most important ways of helping us describe different types of light and lighting.

Distribution

The second controllable quality of light is known as distribution. McCandless described this as “form.” Most lighting designers today actually relate distribution to two specific properties of light. These properties include angle (or direction) and quality. Angle refers to the direction from which the light is coming. Where are you hanging the light source? How does it play upon the subject? Where are the highlights? Where do the shadows fall? Light coming from behind the subject presents a completely different image and associated mood than light coming from in front of the subject. The angle of the light also helps to define or reveal the form of an object. Light coming directly from the front tends to flatten a subject and will cause the subject to appear two-dimensional while from the side it tends to sculpt and etch a subject away from its background. Backlight tends to push objects forward, while downlight tends to squash the subject. A light from below generally appears unnatural and can be used to create non-realistic effects. Quality refers to the texture and characteristic features of the light. Some lighting may be harsh and crisp while other lighting will reflect a soft diffuse quality. Is the light even in distribution, or are there patterns? A walk on a sunny day through an open field exposes you to a very different kind of light than the textured light that you would expect once you move into a wooded area where the trees create patches of light and shadow along the path that you follow. Lighting designers can even create their own textured light by inserting patterns known as gobos into the fixtures that illuminate a space. Distribution may also relate to how light is contained within a space. Examples being an even distribution of light over an entire stage or classroom versus a well-defined cone of light that is created by a single spotlight.

Color

The third controllable quality of light is color. Color is considered by many to be the most dynamic and most easily observed quality of light. All light has an associated color that is determined through the specific collection of wavelengths present within its makeup. However, color is actually a perception based on how specific wavelengths of light stimulate our eyes. More importantly, light has a major impact on the color of any objects that it falls on and the resultant color is a factor of both the object’s actual color and the color of the light that strikes it. All objects selectively absorb or reflect various wavelengths of light and the color that we actually see is produced through a combination of the spectral makeup of the light itself, the removal of specific wavelengths of the light through filtering (gelling), and the selective absorption/reflection of various wavelengths by a subject’s surface. The use of a light containing the wavelengths of light that are naturally reflected by an object will generally result in enhancing that object’s color, while the use of a colored light with limited or no common wavelengths with that of an object will result in a distortion and graying of that object’s natural color. While it is generally agreed that color is the easiest quality of light to observe, it is also commonly acknowledged that due to the unpredictability of its results, it is perhaps the hardest quality to master.

Movement

The final quality of light is movement. Movement refers to changes in the light from moment to moment. This might be represented in a variety of ways: first, by the actual movement of the light source. This is quite common and can be illustrated by a candle or flashlight carried across a room, where you actually see the source move from one location to another. A second form of movement involves the movement of the light without observing the light source directly. Two examples of this include watching the effect of a followspot on a performer and using a progression of lamps to light actors as they move from one position on the stage to another. The last element of movement relates simply to changes within the lighting over time. For all practical purposes, this would come about through making changes in any of the other three controllable qualities of light. Lights suddenly getting brighter or dimmer, shifting to another color, or slowly moving to a different angle are all examples of this kind of movement. The movement may be instantaneous, such as in flipping a light switch on/off, or could be so subtle that a viewer isn’t even aware of the changes being made—such as in a sunset or sunrise sequence. Movement can also be thought of as a transition in lighting. While there are occasions where the lighting for an environment may be static, most of us consider lighting transitions to be just as important as the actual images or cues that a designer creates for a given project.

Functions of Lighting

There are numerous functions associated with lighting. Light is used to reveal and many of the functions of lighting relate specifically to the manner in which light is used to reveal an object(s) or setting. While most lighting designers and illuminating engineers agree in principle with many of the lighting functions discussed in the following sections, sometimes designers combine several of these into larger groups or may associate a different term with a given function. What is important is the performance of the function rather than the specific name used by a given individual. In reality, we combine and modify the controllable qualities of light to produce the varied functions that we must achieve within a lighting project. I will discuss the functions of lighting in the following sections from a more traditional theatrical or entertainment background first and then go into other functions that are more specific to other practices.

Visibility

Many designers would argue that the most important element of lighting is visibility. Some even refer to it as the primary function of lighting. Visibility simply refers to the principle of using light to reveal or illuminate objects. In the early days, the job of the designer was nothing more than to create enough light so that the audience or occupants of a space could see. In many ways, this philosophy of lighting was based on the premise that more was better and many believed that the more footcandles or lumens placed on a stage or in a room, the better visibility that you had. Since the 1950s or ’60s, theatrical designing moved toward a concept that we call selective visibility, which simply refers to revealing to an audience only what needs to be seen. Hence, a less-revealing image on stage might be more appropriate for the dramatic action than a fully illuminated stage. In selective visibility, areas of low intensity, shadows, silhouettes, and high contrast can become effective elements in a lighting designer’s arsenal of tools. An image of Dracula appearing from the shadows is much more terrifying than seeing him come to his next victim in full light. Until the last 10 or 20 years, architectural lighting was known for being largely dependent on the quantity rather than the quality of its lighting and most recommended practices of the past primarily specified the minimum number of footcandles of illumination that were required for a given task or environment. This is no longer the case, and while providing a given level of illumination is still part of the process, other lighting qualities and the judgment of the designer now play a much greater role in the design and specification process. Finally, while it may appear obvi...