Reformation Roots:

Living Theological Heritage of the United Church of Christ - Volume 2

Barbara Brown Zikmund, John B. Payne, Barbara Brown Zikmund, John B. Payne

• Publisher: Pilgrim Press
• Year: 1997
• Print ISBN: 9780829811438
• eBook ISBN: 9780829820942
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Christian Denominations

"Reformation Roots" studies the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in European Christianity, including theological and political undercurrents of the Reformation. Edited by John B. Payne. Series editor Barbara Brown Zikmund.

PART I

Late Medieval and Renaissance Piety and Theology

1. The Book of the Craft of Dying

(c. mid-15th century)

Beginning in the fifteenth century, a new genre of literature developed, one concerning the ars moriendi, the “art of dying.” Its popularity was shaped by the widespread preoccupation with death that accompanied famines and wars, but especially the plagues of the late Middle Ages. In the middle of the fourteenth century, the so-called Black Death wiped out one-third of the population of Europe. Death touched everyone directly.

The origin of literature concerning the art of dying dates from the time of the Council of Constance (1414–18). John (or Jean) Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris and an important conciliarist, gave the impetus to the ars moriendi with his treatise, De arte moriendi, which was the third part of his Opus Tripartitum (Three-Part Work), written about 1408.

As a result of the plague, there were not enough priests. To serve the needs of the people, Latin texts on the ars moriendi were translated into the vernacular to assist those who were dying and enable them to receive instruction and consolation even without a priest. The texts were written for the dying and for lay bystanders, who were encouraged to ask certain questions and admonish and pray with someone who was dying.

Many vernacular texts on the art of dying were produced during the latter half of the fifteenth century. Some were based on a short block-print version of the Latin text, illustrated by eleven woodcuts. The prints depicted five temptations, in the form of demons, that attack a dying human being. In the prints, the demons are conquered by angels, saints, and the Virgin Mary, who intercedes for the dying person. Thus those who could read very little, and even the illiterate, received instruction, admonition, and solace from these tracts.

The text offered here is a translation of an earlier Latin treatise most often called Tractatus de arte Moriendi. It was written by an unknown author, probably in the mid-fifteenth century. As is characteristic of most texts on the art of dying, it had six parts: (1) a commendation of death and of the profitability of the art of dying or the knowledge of how to die well; (2) a description of the five chief temptations that beset the dying one—unbelief (especially unbelief in the church’s teaching), despair, impatience, pride, and avarice; (3) two sets of interrogations, or catechetical questions, one from St. Anselm and the other from John Gerson, which test the dying one’s faithfulness and depth of contrition, yet end with words of consolation and a plea for trust in the redemption of Christ’s passion; (4) a series of admonitions to encourage the dying one to imitate Christ’s passion and death, accompanied by a series of prayers; (5) counsel to the bystanders as to how they are to minister to the dying person; and (6) prayers to be offered by bystanders when a sick person is about to die.

In contrast to the frightening artistic depictions of the Dance of Death and the Last Judgment, the message of texts on the ars moriendi is primarily one of comfort rather than judgment, even as an unbelieving and unrepentant sinner is issued some stern warnings.

Texts on the ars moriendi remained unchanged in form and content until the sixteenth century, when they underwent changes due to the impact of Renaissance humanism, Protestantism, and Counter-Reformation Catholicism. Although modified by these movements, texts on the ars moriendi remained vibrant well into the seventeenth century, shaping reflections on death by Protestants in England and on the continent.¹

Chapter I

The First Chapter Is of Commendation of Death and of Cunning to [i.e. Knowing How to] Die Well

Though bodily death be most dreadful of all fearful things, as the Philosopher [Aristotle] saith in the third book of Ethics, yet spiritual death of the soul is as much more horrible and detestable, as the soul is more worthy and precious than the body; as the prophet David saith: . . . The death of the sinful man is worst of all deaths [Ps. 34:21]. But as the same prophet saith: . . . The death of the good man is ever precious in the sight of God [Ps. 116:15], what manner of bodily death that ever they die. And thou shalt understand also that not only the death of holy martyrs is so precious, but also the death of all other rightful and good Christian men; and furthermore the death, doubtless, of all sinful men: how long, and how wicked, and how cursed they have been all their life before, unto their last end that they die in—if they die in the state of very [true] repentance and contrition, and in the very faith, and virtue, and charity of Holy Church—is acceptable and precious in the sight of God. As Saint John saith in the Apocalypse [Rev. 14:13]: . . . Blessed be all dead men that die in God.

Chapter II

The Second Chapter Is of Men’s Temptations that Die

Know all men doubtless, that men that die, in their last sickness and end, have greatest and most grievous temptations, and such as they never had before in all their life. And of these temptations five be most principal.

I. The First is of the faith, forasmuch as faith is fundament of all men’s soul’s-heal. . . .

Therefore the devil with all his might is busy to avert fully a man from the faith in his last end; or, if he may not, that he laboureth busily to make his doubt therein, or somewhat draw him out of the way or deceive him with some manner of superstitious and false errors or heresies. But every good Christian man is bound namely habitually, though he may not actually and intellectually apprehend them, to believe, and full faith and credence give, not only to the principal articles of the faith, but also to all holy writ in all manner things; and fully to obey the statutes of the church of Rome, and stably to abide and die in them. For as soon as he beginneth to err or doubt in any of them all, as soon he goeth out of the way of life, and his soul’s heal. But wit thou well without doubt, that in this temptation, and in all other that follow after, the devil may not noy thee, nor prevail against no man, in no wise, as long as he hath use of his free will, and of reason well disposed, but if he will wilfully consent unto his temptation.

And therefore no very Christian man ought (not) to dread any of his illusions, or his false threatenings, or his feigned fearings. For as Christ himself saith in the gospel: . . . The devil is a liar, and a father of all leasings [John 8:44]. But manly, therefore, and stiffly and steadfastly abide and persevere; and die in the very faith and unity and obedience of our mother Holy Church.

And it is right profitable and good, as it is used in some religious, when a man is in agony of dying, with an high voice oft times to say the Creed before him, that he that is sick may be mortified in stableness of the faith; and fiends that may not suffer to hear it may be voided and driven away from him. Also to stableness of very faith should strengthen a sick man principally the stable faith of our holy Fathers, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Also the perseverant abiding faith of Job, of Raab the woman, and Achor, and such other. And also the faith of the Apostles, and other martyrs, confessors, and virgins innumerable. For by faith all they that have been of old time before us—and all they be now and shall be hereafter—they all please, and have [pleased] and shall please God by faith. For as it is aforesaid: Withouten faith it is impossible to please God. . . .

II. The Second Temptation is Desperation; the which is against [the] hope and confidence that every man should have unto God.

For when a sick man is sore tormented and vexed, with sorrow and sickness of his body, then the devil is most busy to superadd sorrow to sorrow, with all [the] ways that he may, objecting his sins against him for to induce him into despair. . . .

Also the devil bringeth again into a man’s mind that is in point of death specially those sins that he hath done, and was not shriven of, to draw him thereby into despair. But therefore should no man despair in no wise. For though any one man or woman had done as many thefts, or manslaughters, or as many other sins as be drops of water in the sea, and gravel stones in the strand, though he had never done penance for them afore, nor never had been shriven of them before—neither then might have time, to be shriven of them—yet should he never despair; for in such a case very contrition of heart within, with will to be shriven if time sufficed, is sufficient and accepted by God for to save him everlastingly: as the Prophet saith in the psalm: . . . Lord God, Thou wilt never despise a contrite heart and a meek [Ps. 51:17]. . . .

Therefore against despair, for to induce him that is sick and laboureth in his dying to very trust and confidence that he should principally have to God at that time, the disposition of Christ in the cross should greatly draw him. . . .

Therefore no man should despair of forgiveness, but fully have hope and confidence in God; for the virtue of hope is greatly commendable, and of great merit before God. . . .

Furthermore, that no sinful man should in no wise despair—have he sinned never so greatly, nor never so sore, nor never so oft, nor never so long continued therein—we have open ensample in Peter that denied Christ; in Paul that pursued Holy Church; in Matthew and Zaccheus, the publicans; in Mary Maudeleyn [Magdalen], the sinful woman, [in the woman] that was taken in avoutry [adultery]; in the thief that hung on the cross beside Christ; in Mary Egyptian; and in innumerable other grievous and great sinners.

III. The Third Temptation is Impatience; the which is against charity, by the which we be bound to love God above all things.

For they that be in sickness, in their death bed suffer passingly [surpassingly] great pain and sorrow and woe; and namely they that die not by nature and course of age—that happeth right seldom, as open experience teacheth men—but die often through an accidental sickness; as a fever, a postune [tumor], and such other grievous and painful and long sickness. The which many men, and namely those that be undisposed [unprepared] to die and die against their will and lack very charity, maketh so impatient and grutching [murmuring], that other while [at times] through woe and impatience, they become wood [mad] and witless, as it hath been seen in many men. And so by that it is open and certain that they that die in that wise fail and lack very charity. . . . Therefore that man that will die well, it is needful that he grutch [complain] not in no manner of sickness that falleth to him before his death, or in his dying—be it never so painful or grievous—long time [or short time] dying. . . . There shall no man have the kingdom of heaven that grutcheth and is impatient; and there may no man grutch that hath it. But as the great Clerk Albert² saith, speaking of very contrition: If a very contrite man offereth himself gladly to all manner afflictions of sickness and punishing of his sins, that he may thereby satisfy God worthily for his offences, much more then every sick man should suffer patiently and gladly his own sickness alone, that is lighter without comparison than many sicknesses that other men suffer; namely that sickness before a man’s death is as a purgatory to him, when it is suffered as it ought; that is to understand, if it be suffered patiently, gladly, and with a free and a kind will of heart. For the same clerk Albert saith: We have need to have a free, kind will to God, not only in such things as be to our consolation, but also in such things as be to our affliction. . . .

This temptation of impatience fighteth against charity, and without charity may no men be saved. . . .

IV. The Fourth Temptation is Complacence, or pleasance of a man that he hath in himself; that is spiritual pride, with the which the devil tempteth and beguileth most religious, and devout and perfect men.

For when the devil seeth that he may not bring a man out of faith, nor may not induce him into despair, neither to impatience, then he assaileth him by complacence of himself, putting such manner temptations in his heart: O how stable art thou in the faith! how strong in hope! how sad in patience! O how many good deeds hast thou done! and such other thoughts. . . .

And therefore he that shall die must beware when he feeleth himself tempted with pride, that then he [low and] meek himself thinking on his sins: and that he wot never whether he be worthy everlasting love or hate, that is to say, salvation or damnation. Nevertheless, lest he despair, he must lift up his heart to God by hope, thinking and revolving stably that the mercy of God is above all His works, and that God is true in all His words, and that He is truth and righteousness that never beguileth, neither is beguiled, which be-hight [vowed]. . . . Every man should follow Saint Antony³ to whom the devil said: Antony, thou hast overcome me; for when I would have thee up by pride, thou keptest thyself a-down by meekness; and when I would draw thee down by desperation, thou keptest thyself up by hope. Thus should every man do, sick and whole, and then is the devil overcome.

V. The Fifth [Temptation] that tempteth and grieveth most carnal men and secular men, that be in overmuch occupation, and business outward about temporal things; that is their wives, their children, their carnal friends, and their worldly riches, and other things that they have loved inordinately before.

For he that will die well and surely must utterly and fully put away out of his mind all temporal and outward things, and plenerly [fully] commit himself all to God. . . .

But it is to be noted well that the devil in all these temptations abovesaid may compel no man, nor in no manner of wise prevail against him for to consent to him—as long as a man hath the use of reason with him—but if he will wilfully consent unto him; that every good Christian man, and also every sinful man—be he never so great a sinner—ought to beware of above all things. For the Apostle saith: . . . God, he saith, is true, and will not suffer you to be tempted more than ye may bear; but He will give you such support in your temptations that ye may bear them [I Cor. 10:13]. . . . Therefore (let) every man, rightful and sinful, bow himself, and submit himself fully unto the mighty hand of God; and with His help he shall surely get and have the victory in all manner of temptations, evils, and sorrows, and of death thereto.

Chapter III

The Third Chapter Containeth the Interrogations that Should Be Asked of Them that Be in Their Death Bed, while They May Speak and Understand

Now follow the interrogations of them that draw to the death, while they have reason with them and their speech. For this cause if any man is not fully disposed to die, he may the better be informed and comforted [thereto]. And as Saint Anselm⁴ the bishop saith and teacheth, these interrogations should be had unto them that be in that plight.

First ask him this:

Brother, art thou glad that thou shalt die in the faith of Christ?

The sick man answereth: Yea.

Knowest thou well that thou hast not done as thou shouldst have done?

He answereth: Yea.

Repentest thee thereof?

He answereth: Yea.

Hast thou full will to amend thee, if thou mightest have full space of life?

He answereth: Yea.

Believest thou fully that Our Lord Jesu Christ, God’s Son, died for thee?

He sayeth: Yea.

Thankest thou Him thereof with all thine heart?

He answereth: Yea.

Believest thou verily that thou mayest not be saved but by Christ’s [death and His] passion?

He answereth: Yea.

Then thank Him thereof ever, while thy soul is in thy body, and put all thy trust in His passion and in His death only, having trust in none other thing. To this death commit thee fully. In His death wrap all thyself fully; ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half title
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• The Living Theological Heritage of the United Church of Christ
• Reformation Roots
• Part I. Late Medieval and Renaissance Piety and Theology
• Part II. Reformation in Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands
• Part III. The English Reformation
• Part IV. Lay Piety and Theology
• Sources
• Index
• Scriptural Index