A History of Brazil

Joseph Smith

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781317890201
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Geschichte
• Subtopic: Weltgeschichte

A clearly structured and well-informed synthesis of developments and events in Brazilian history from the colonial period to the present, this volume is aimed at non-specialized readers and students, seeking a straightforward introduction to this unique Latin American country. Divided chronologically into five main historical periods - Colonial Brazil, Empire, the First Republic, the Estado Novo and events from 1964 to the present - the book explores the politics, economy, society, and diplomacy during each phase. The emphasis on diplomacy is particularly original and adds an unusual dimension to the book.

Chapter 1
Colonial Brazil

Politics and diplomacy

Discovery

Although it had been traversed and occupied by indigenous peoples for centuries, the large area of the Americas that would become the nation known to people all over the world as Brazil was not formally discovered and claimed by Europeans until 1500.¹ The encounter occurred when a Portuguese fleet en route to India sighted an unknown land to the west on April 22, 1500. On coming ashore two days later the leader of the expedition, Pedro Álvares Cabral, declared the territory to be the possession of the king of Portugal. The land therefore became part of the Portuguese overseas empire, and its history for the next three centuries would be greatly influenced and shaped by Portuguese political, economic and cultural values and requirements.

The discovery appeared accidental, but to the Portuguese it was one more sign of their nation's divine mission to expand overseas. For over a century since 1385 the relatively tiny kingdom of Portugal under the ruling House of Avis had been actively involved in organizing voyages of discovery and exploration. Interest in the wider world reflected the country's geographical position bordering the Atlantic Ocean. The resulting sea-going tradition of the people of the coast was reinforced by contemporary improvements in cartography and navigational techniques and especially the development of the caravel, a sailing ship that combined stability on the high seas with the capacity to carry large cargoes of merchandise. In addition, the Portuguese monarchy, of which Prince Henrique 'the Navigator' was a prominent member, gave enthusiastic backing to merchants in their schemes to circumvent the traditional land passage across Europe and Asia and discover a new route by sea to the precious metals and spices of the Orient. But economic factors were not the only reason for overseas expansion. Religion also played an important part. Like their Spanish² Christian neighbors, the Portuguese had fought a successful Reconquista (War of Reconquest) to reclaim their portion of the Iberian peninsula from the Muslims who had invaded during the eighth century. The spirit of the Reconquista endured in the desire to serve God by spreading the Catholic faith overseas and was illustrated in the emblem of the Cross that appeared on the sails of Portuguese vessels.

The first stage of Portuguese overseas expansion was directed to North Africa, where the fortress of Ceuta was seized from the Muslims in 1415. Although a desire for further territorial conquests existed, the policy that evolved was eminently practical in emphasizing trade rather than permanent colonial settlement or civilizing mission. Various strategic points along the coast of West Africa were captured and used as feitorias (fortified trading posts) for the exchange of goods with local Africans. The most valuable items traded were gold, sugar and slaves. To facilitate and protect the new trade, a network of important naval bases in the Atlantic Ocean was established during the fifteenth century in Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands. The route to the Indian Ocean was opened in 1488 when Bartolomeu Dias succeeded in safely sailing past the Cape of Terrors, which was renamed the Cape of Good Hope.

Portuguese overseas expansion was copied by its larger and more powerful neighbor, the Kingdom of Castile, which sponsored the celebrated expedition organized by Christopher Columbus that discovered the Indies in 1492. The success of Columbus raised the question of ownership of the previously unknown territories and those still to be discovered in what Europeans would refer to as the 'New World.' In 1493 Pope Alexander VI sought to resolve the issue by drawing a line running from the north to the south about 100 leagues (1,700 miles) west of the Cape Verde Islands. In return for an undertaking from the monarchs of Spain and Portugal to spread Christianity, the pope stated that the lands to the west of the line belonged to Spain while those to the east were the exclusive possession of Portugal. King João II of Portugal, however, did not agree with the division, alleging that the pope had been too sympathetic to Spain. In June 1494 Portugal and Spain signed the Treaty of Tordesiilas that was more acceptable to Portugal because it moved the pope's line to 370 leagues west of the Cape Verdes. No other European rulers were consulted in the arrangement. In effect, the two kingdoms were unilaterally dividing the New World between themselves.

Shortly after the conclusion of the Treaty of Tordesillas, Portuguese ambitions were greatly elevated by reports that Vasco da Gama had followed the route of Bartolomeu Dias around Africa and had reached India in 1498. A new and larger expedition was prepared to repeat his achievement. The fleet of thirteen ships contained 1,200 persons and was commanded by a prominent aristocrat, Pedro Álvares Cabral. Though a desire to promote the Catholic faith was evident, the emphasis of the expedition was placed on securing trade and treasure. Most of all, King Manoel I (king from 1495 to 1521) wanted Cabral to arrange an alliance with the Sultan of Calcutta that would establish profitable commercial relations. The fleet left the Tagus on March 9, 1500, followed the regular route to the Canaries and the Cape Verde Islands, but then chose to take a more westerly route than normal. Whether the change of course was deliberate or accidental is not known. On April 21 the fleet caught sight of land and made a brief landing before proceeding on the next day to what is today the state of Bahia, where they anchored in a sheltered harbor that was appropriately named Porto Seguro ('Safe Port'). April 22 later became recognized as the official date of discovery. Between that day and May 2, a reconnaissance was made along the coastline. The newly discovered territory was claimed for Portugal and called the 'Island of the Holy Cross.'

Conquest and commerce

The stop in Brazil was treated as a temporary diversion and Cabral quickly resumed his voyage to India. A single ship, however, was sent back to Lisbon to report the discovery of what was initially believed to be an island of indeterminate size. A letter dated May 1, 1500 and prepared by Pero Vaz de Caminha, a scribe who was a member of Cabral's fleet, informed the king that 'the country is so well-favored that if it were rightly cultivated it would yield everything.'³ The popular image of Brazil as a land of infinite natural resources and great economic potential was tempered, however, by the major disappointment that no evidence had been found of the presence of any gold or silver. The lack of precious metals, jewels or spices was confirmed by a second and smaller fleet of three ships that was dispatched from Portugal in 1501 and surveyed a long stretch of the Brazilian coastline. The fleet brought back samples of a local dyewood, however, that was considered valuable in Europe and had previously only been available in limited quantities from the Orient. The dye produced from the bark was known in Latin as 'brasile' so that the newly-discovered land was referred to as 'the land of brasil' and the dyewood as brazilwood (pau-brasil). In Europe, 'Brazil' soon became the accepted name for the new country in preference to Cabral's 'Island of the Holy Cross.'⁴

While the Portuguese Crown quickly declared its possession of the new territory under the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, it showed no desire to incur any expenses to set up a colonial administration or to emulate Spain and embark on a great civilizing mission in the New World. Despite the general attitude of indifference, however, Brazil was not completely neglected. Even though there was no easily accessible gold and silver, the Portuguese monarchy recognized that respectable profits could be made from trade. As had been the practice in West Africa, most of the expenses arising from the fitting out of ships and conducting trade were incurred by private individuals. This was achieved by the grant of royal leases to set up feitorias to trade with the local people. In return, merchants agreed to pay a fixed share of their profits to the Crown and maintain the trading station as an outpost of the Portuguese empire. In 1502 a monopoly of the trade in brazilwood was given to the New Christian merchant, Fernão de Noronha, who undertook in return to organize the defense of the coast and to send out further exploratory missions. Feitorias were established along the coast, but Portuguese merchants had little incentive to go further inland. In marked contrast to Spanish America, there was no sign of the proximity of either precious metals or substantial native populations or advanced civilizations. Moreover, physical movement beyond the coastline was seriously impeded by the proximity of dense forest and jungle, high mountain ranges and swift-flowing rivers. In addition, there was the threat of hostile Indians, wild animals, poisonous insects and snakes. The feitorias in Brazil proved therefore to be precarious footholds and did not initially have much significance. By comparison 'golden Goa' in India was the center of the empire and was considered a much more attractive financial proposition by Portuguese merchants and adventurers.

The desultory attitude of the Portuguese Crown towards Brazil was disturbed by encroachment from French competitors who were also attracted by the availability and economic potential of the brazilwood trade. A French ship reportedly reached the Brazilian coast in 1504, While the French rarely chose to establish feitorias on shore, their ships engaged in direct trade with the Indians. Not only did this pose a challenge to the Portuguese claim to monopolize the brazilwood trade, but it also increased supplies to Europe and thereby reduced prices and profits. The Portuguese king denounced the French traders as pirates and sent ships to patrol Brazilian waters. Conscious that the king of France did not recognize the Portuguese and Spanish claims laid down in the Treaty of Tordesillas, King João III (king from 1521 to 1557) decided to pre-empt possible interference from other nations by asserting his own control over Brazil. To achieve this, however, required the provision of a permanent Portuguese military and civilian presence in the new territory.

The captaincy system

In December 1530 Martim Afonso de Sousa set sail for Brazil in command of an expedition consisting of five ships and more than 400 men. Martim Afonso was under royal instructions to establish fortified settlements that would provide bases for naval action to prevent the French interlopers from trading with the Indians. The forts would also assist the search for gold and precious metals, a prospect that was enhanced by the news of the treasure discovered in Mexico by the Spanish conquistador, Hernán Cortés. In January 1532, after completing a survey of the coast, Martim Afonso chose São Vicente near present-day Santos as the site of his preferred headquarters and main fortified point. São Vicente was, therefore, the first permanent Portuguese colony in Brazil. In 1554 Jesuits traveled further inland and founded a smaller settlement in a village that was named after the River Piratininga. This village would ultimately grow into the city of São Paulo. Martim Afonso acted as a virtual viceroy in establishing the machinery of royal government in Brazil. In doing so, he affirmed his king's sovereignty over the country and ensured the continuation of Portuguese control.

In 1534, in order to colonize and develop the interior, João III divided the area between the coast and the supposed line of the Treaty of Tordesillas into land grants known as captaincies (capitanias). By 1536 fifteen separate captaincies of varying size had been created extending from Maranhão in the North to Santa Ana in the South. They were distributed among twelve donataries (donatários), most of which were wealthy Portuguese aristocrats. An arrangement resembling a feudal compact was made between the king and each donatary in which the latter and his heirs received the royal gift of land (carta de doação) and in return pledged not only to pay taxes to the king but also to settle and develop the land and to provide for its defense against the Indians and foreign invaders. Like the leases for the trade in brazilwood, the donataries and their heirs assumed the full costs of establishing the captaincies. The donatary, however, exercised powers of civil and criminal jurisdiction and was also allowed to sub-divide his captaincy into smaller and separate lots of uncultivated land known as sesmarias. Initially there was so much available land that some individual sesmarias were huge. The largest varied in size from 40 to 100 square miles and established a precedent for creating vast estates that would be a prominent feature of the future distribution of land-holding in Brazil.

It was soon evident that the captaincy system was too ambitious and impractical. Not enough Portuguese aristocrats, merchants or peasants were willing to emigrate to a country as vast and undeveloped as Brazil. By contrast, Africa and India still remained more attractive and less dangerous destinations. Indeed, five captaincies were never actually colonized because the donatary did not choose to make the journey to Brazil. Of the donataries who took up their captaincies, four were killed by Indians who frequently attacked and often destroyed the fledgling settlements. Only the captaincies of São Vicente and Pernambuco were initially successful. Although he did not personally assume control of the captaincy of São Vicente, Martim Afonso delegated his powers to efficient administrators. They effectively contained the Indian threat and established profitable sugar plantations. The captaincy of Pernambuco in the Northeast also prospered under its donatary, Duarte Coelho, who was unusual in stressing the importance of cooperating with the local Indians. This ensured reliable supplies of brazilwood and food and enabled him to exploit the fertile local soil which proved ideal for the successful cultivation of tobacco and especially sugar.

The success of São Vicente ana Peraambuco was exceptional. The other captaincies were in a state of chaos. 'If Your Highness does not shortly aid these captaincies,' a brother of one donatary pleaded to King João III in 1548, 'You will lose the land.'⁵ In fact, a decision to evacuate remained a distinct possibility so long as Brazil appeared as a remote and forbidding wilderness However, the success of the sugar industry in São Vicente and Pernambuco demonstrated a potential to produce regular income and good profits. The dream of finding 'el dorado' also still lingered. Recent reports of the Spanish discovery of the great silver mines of Potosi in 1545 rekindled the hope that precious metals might still be found in Brazil.

Royal government

King João III recognized that timely royal intervention was necessary to prevent the collapse of the captaincy system and the possible loss of his American empire to foreign rivals. In 1548 he announced the appointment of Tome de Sousa as resident governor-general of the colony. The captaincy of Bahia was also reclaimed as royal land. Sousa arrived in Brazil in March 1549 with a powerful fleet of six ships and more than 1,000 soldiers. In accordance with his instructions, he subsequently founded a powerful fortress at Salvador (da Bahia) overlooking the Bay of All Saints. Although some individual captaincies survived into the eighteenth century, the founding of Salvador as the capital of the colony and seat of the new central government marked the direct and visible assertion of royal authority for the first time in Brazil and, consequently, signified the abandonment of the captaincy system as the Crown's preferred model of colonial government. In fact, the donataries were required to give up their exclusive powers in relation to the collection of taxes, administration of justice and defense of territory.

The sending of military reinforcements proved sensible because Sousa and his successors, most notably Mem de Sá who was governor-general from 1558 to 1572, had to combat French attempts to seize possession of Brazilian territory. The most serious threat emerged in 1555 when a French fleet commanded by Admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon entered Guanabara Bay and in alliance with the Tamoios Indians, founded a small community known as 'French Antarctica' on Sergipe Island. The ostensible aim was to establish a refuge for French Huguenots. Similar French attempts were made in South Carolina and in St. Augustine, Florida. The Portuguese response to Villegaignon's Brazilian venture was uncompromising. After a series of attacks by Portuguese forces from 1565 onwards, the French were eventually expelled in 1567. The excellent harbor and strategic location of Guanabara Bay led the Portuguese to establish a new town which was called (São Sebastião do) Rio de Janeiro. Though French threats would persist, especially in the North where Daniel de la Touche, Sieur de la Ravardière, founded the shortlived settlement of St. Louis (São Luís) in 1612, they were never militarily powerful enough to undermine Portuguese control of Brazil.

Military operations directed against the French resulted in the establishment of new fortified Portuguese settlements along the Brazilian coastline extending from São Vicente up to the Amazon Valley. In the process, there was frequent conflict with local Indians resulting in their subjugation and expulsion. Efforts were made, however, to convert the Indians to Christianity. In fact, six Jesuits had arrived with Tome de Sousa's fleet in 1549. Led by Father Manoel da Nóbrega, they played an important role in promoting the policy of pacifying and acculturating the Indians. The authority and influence of the Church was considerably enhanced by the creation of the diocese of Bahia in 1551. By the second half of the sixteenth century Portuguese attitudes towards Brazil had markedly changed. Although the vast interior still remained virtually unexplored and unknown to Europeans, Brazil was no longer merely a collection of feitorias but a colony containing several permanent fortified settlements, a central government and diocese located in the capital city of Salvador, and the beginnings of a flourishing sugar industry.

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