Critical Systems Analysis and Design
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Critical Systems Analysis and Design

A Personal Framework Approach

Nandish Patel

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eBook - ePub

Critical Systems Analysis and Design

A Personal Framework Approach

Nandish Patel

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About This Book

Taking a unique approach to systems analysis and design, this insightful book provides learners with a critical personal framework for considering and developing knowledge and practice of systems analysis and design. Each chapter begins by highlighting what can be learned on its completion and ends with a critical skills development section contain

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Publisher
Routledge
Year
2004
ISBN
9781134321056
Edition
1

Part I : Foundations for critical learning and teaching

Part I provides the foundational development for a PCF perspective. It is the pedagogical basis for developing criticality. The contents of a PCF determine how it is used to anticipate action, and how critical thinking is applied to studied and experiential knowledge. This is called the PAC cycle and it is elaborated in Chapters 1 and 2. The PAC cycle enables the structuring of critical thought.
Criticality is only possible if a suitable framework for analysis and evaluation is devised. Criticality requires a critical lens through which systems analysis and design can be examined. Chapter 2 sets out such a Critical Framework used throughout the textbook. In it systems analysis and design is interpreted as human action that can be improved through critical thought. The framework suggests cognitive processes for acquiring, understanding, and assimilating knowledge and its application. It is the requisite lens for developing critical thought and also the basis for insights into how to develop and sustain a PCF for personal effectiveness.
The value of a PCF is its criticality. It is the critical consideration of systems analysis and design and subsequent inclusion in PCF that provides substance. Chapter 2 also explains what a PCF is, how to develop one, and why a PCF is necessary for improving understanding and practice. The question of how to understand something, and assimilate it into a PCF, is addressed in terms of personal cognition and personal constructs.

Chapter 1
The PAC cycle

1.1 Learning outcomes

To engage in the PAC cycle, after completing this chapter you should be able to:
  • Develop, revise and amend a PCF based on criticality.
  • Apply critical cognitive skills to a PCF.
  • Relate a PCF to personal action and effectiveness.
  • Interpret formal and practical knowledge in terms of transformatory critique, refashioning of traditions, reflexive practice and critical skills.

1.2 Introduction

Critical systems ontology is the interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, questioning and critical study of systems. It is the notion that current ontological knowledge of systems can be improved, and that it can be ‘other than it is’ to be practically effective. It is enabled through a Personal Critical Framework, Action, and Criticality or the PAC cycle. The PAC cycle is proposed as a method for systems analysts to develop criticality and critical thought. It is termed a ‘cycle’ because criticality is a continuous activity. Practitioners need to develop the habit of reflecting on what they do, how they do it, and crucially, why they do it in order to improve practice. These are the preconditions for developing criticality, and require cognitive skills in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation and self-regulation. Learners too need to develop these cognitive skills. They can benefit from learning to reflect on knowledge and develop deeper understanding of systems analysis, systems design, its techniques, tools and methods.
The PAC cycle is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Readers are encouraged to develop a PCF marked as (1) in the figure, enactment of the PCF (2), and reflect critically on the effect of the enactment on achieving desired aims (3). A PCF is a qualitative approach to knowledge formation in which personal constructs are unique to an individual. The cycle is completed when criticality leads to the revision or amendment of personal constructs and the PCF.
An initial PCF can be formed either through critical study or reflective practice. It is composed of personal constructs on systems analysis and design and the relations between them that a systems analyst deems relevant to anticipate reality. It is this focus on anticipating reality that makes a PCF relevant for analysts because the development of an IS is such an anticipation of reality. Systems analysis and design is practical and the analysts’ actions shape actual IS. The PCF is then enacted in actual IS development situations. The analyst critically considers the effects of the actions in the actual situation to enhance or revise the PCF. The process of forming personal constructs, using them to anticipate events, and revising them is continuous.
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Figure 1.1 The PAC cycle
The PAC cycle is a cognitive device to assess and improve personal effectiveness and success. Personal effectiveness is the basis for developing professionalism. Assessing personal effectiveness itself requires an objectified process. Objectification is the basis for improving knowledge and understanding practice. Objectified experiential and learnt knowledge is an import ant part of the PAC cycle. It is necessary for the development of personal constructs and a PCF, reflection on ones actions to develop knowledge further, and the application of criticality to a PCF.

1.3 Personal Critical Framework

A PCF is a significant element of knowledge and professional development. It brings training and education in systems analysis and design together on the basis of the self and the self’s need for knowledge to anticipate experience. A framework is: ‘typically a mixture of pre-suppositions of correctness, of what is valuable, and of validity. The framework is not purely cognitive; it is not even mainly cognitive. It is invested with values, emotion, commitment, and professional and social identity’ (Barnett, 1997).
A PCF is an objectified tool for critical reflection on the self, knowledge, and practice, and it is open to revision, amendment and update. While training in systems analysis and design leads to specific and prescribed behaviour, education results in an awareness of the processes that lead to acquiring knowledge, and cognitive and practical skills. Education engenders personal reflection on these processes.
The practice-orientation of systems analysis and design requires learners themselves to discover ownership of knowledge. Generating ownership is the major aim of a PCF. As individuals have selves, the self is central in the development of a PCF. It is vital for making learning and knowledge relevant and meaningful. Knowledge is gathered and interpreted by the self. Learning that is divorced from the self usually lacks relevance when action is required.
A PCF enables criticality in systems analysis and design. An analyst develops a PCF to improve understanding of knowledge and practice. Its purpose is to improve the self through knowledge and individual action. Knowledge that is devoid of the self creates a vacuity. The self provides ownership and responsibility. In the absence of the self, learnt or experiential knowledge lacks meaning. Such insipid knowledge then bares no relation to actual practice.

1.3.1 Objectifying a Personal Critical Framework


Objectification results in reflection on how knowledge is acquired and used by the self in practice. The process of objectifying knowledge to develop a PCF requires making personal constructs explicit on what constitutes knowledge, how it is acquired, and how it is accepted as valid. Cognitive skills are needed to objectify a PCF and for critically evaluating objectified knowledge. Interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation and self-regulation propounded by the Delphi Report (Facione, 1990) serve as requisite cognitive skills to develop a PCF and engage in the PAC cycle.
Objectifying personal knowledge is initially difficult, especially for practitioners immersed in practice. Difficulties in objectifying a PCF arise because of unfamiliarity with reflection. The process of objectifying personal constructs and the relationships between them includes action, reflection, writing, diagramming and discussion. An individual can begin to identify personal constructs through these activities. Objectification may be individual and then discussed with a mentor or trusted colleague, or it may be done in a group. Objectified personal constructs and their relations can then form the foundation for a PCF.
Action Practice is the deployment of knowledge to achieve specific goals. It results in experiential knowledge. Analysts gather and use relevant knowledge for practice. For example, an analyst acquires knowledge of techniques to use to determine system requirements for a new IS. Chosen techniques will be enacted to analyse system requirements.
Reflection Reflection is the process of critical thinking on practice to improve professionalism, and the self. Analysts evaluate and critically assess practice to determine its effectiveness. Practice is scrutinized to understand what was done, how it was done, and whether it achieved predetermined objectives. For example, an analyst reflecting on the effectiveness of interviewing clients for functional requirements may assess how the interview was conducted and whether it was suitable for establishing functional requirements.
Writing Making a record or writing is a method for externalizing knowledge and experience. It can be recorded as notes or critical evaluations of practice. For instance, an analyst reflecting on a project to develop a decision support system can record personal activities in the project. The objectified writing can serve as a record for critical analysis of practice and its effectiveness.
Diagramming Drawing diagrams is a method for making a graphical representation of knowledge, concepts, techniques and activities. A diagram provides an overall perspective on knowledge and action. The objectified diagram can be used to further reflect on practice and how to make it more effective.
Discussion The reflection, written records and diagrams can be discussed with trusted colleagues or teachers. They constitute objectified material for further critical understanding of practice through other peoples’ perspectives. Other peoples’ perspectives help to critically assess, question and evaluate practice and knowledge.

1.3.2 Knowledge and practice elements


A PCF has knowledge and practice elements. Knowledge and practice is conceptually demarcated in the PCF but in practice they can be accumulated separately or jointly. A learner with no practical experience will initially accumulate only knowledge. A practitioner can accumulate knowledge through practical experience and contribute to the development of practice simultaneously.
The knowledge element is required to understand theory and relate it to practice. Theory is an account or explanation of observed phenomena. A theoretical explanation improves understanding, provides explanatory knowledge and informs practice. It consists of ideas that explain the nature of something, its causes that made it possible and how it functions.
It is difficult to find theory in systems analysis and design, but there are paradigms of thinking and acting that seek to explain systems analysis and design, and how it should be performed. Such knowledge is accumulated through formal learning or from practical experience. Such paradigms can contribute to personal explanations of why and how things work. On a personal level a paradigm consists of objectified ideas, concepts, techniques and methods that form personal understanding of systems analysis and design. Theoretical and paradigmatic understanding can be used to enhance and improve personal constructs or redefine relations between elements in a PCF.
Praxis is the practical side of a discipline or profession and it provides practical knowledge. Practice can be conducted in the absence of clear knowledge or understanding of the reasons for acting in a particular manner. It can benefit from clear explanations for acting in a particular manner. Reflexive praxis or reflexive practice can lead to practical knowledge based on critical thinking. Analysts who reflect critically on practice and knowledge can revise and amend personal constructs accordingly. Reflexive practice can be combined with theoretical or paradigmatic explanations to develop deeper knowledge and understanding.
Professionalism, though, needs to combine the knowledge and practice elements in a PCF. Objectifying knowledge and practice personal constructs can improve understanding of practice. Practice can be developed with clear explanations for acting in a particular manner. Most practitioners are content doing their work and do not attempt to explain or understand what underpins practice. A practitioner may find that object modelling does not work well but be unable to explain why it does not work in practice. Reflexive practice can help to explain the method’s shortcomings by understanding systems ontology. An analyst may be trained to elicit system requirements using structured techniques and may unquestioningly deploy them. The analyst’s understanding of the effectiveness of the techniques would improve with knowledge of assumptions made about actual situations, explanation for conducting requirements in the first place, and why structured techniques should be used.
Learners especially need to develop the practice element of a PCF. They are best placed to benefit from the knowledge element and use it to consider how they might act in actual situations. They can be encouraged to develop practice personal constructs through scenarios or cases to determine how they would act. A learner’s initial PCF can be used as a guide to praxis when they begin practice, which should be revised subsequently on the basis of reflexive practice.

1.4 Personal effectiveness through a Personal Critical Framework

A PCF is useful for determining the success or effectiveness of practice. The achievement of an objective is a practical measure of success. A PCF can be used to improve personal effectiveness and to determine, through critical reflection, which personal constructs and relations lead to effective practice. It enables practitioners to know how to do things better and learners to understand the reasons for particular action. It can be used to:

  • decide how to act in actual situations;
  • determine knowledge and critical areas for its improvement;
  • explore strengths, develop them further, and exploit them;
  • identify weaknesses and take action to improve them.
An objectified PCF can improve the effectiveness of practice. It can be used to determine the efficacy of one’s action. It can be the basis for critically reflecting on and understanding one’s action, resulting in some personal constructs being revised, others replaced, or new ones introduced.

1.4.1 Reinforcing and stopping action


A PCF can be used to explain why certain actions should be repeated and why others should be stopped. Action that leads to success can obviously be repeated. An explanation of why it is successful can be deduced from a PCF. The explanation will enhance knowledge of practice and deepen understanding. For example, when a method or technique works well in practice it is beneficial to know and understand why and how it works. Developing an understanding of how it works in theory can provide deeper knowledge of its value in practice.
Practice that results in lack of desired levels of success or even failure needs to be stopped. The problems with personal constructs can be identified and amended or entire personal constructs replaced. Simply stopping the action will not improve knowledge or practice. It is vital for professional development to know why certain actions should not be repeated. Stopping action without understanding the reasons for failure may lead to future similar failures.
Explaining practice is important for developing a PCF that contains relevant personal constructs. Actual practice consists of implicit or explicit rules, procedures and assumptions of which a practitioner may not be cognizant. Explaining successful practice will objectify them and develop knowledge that will contribute to better understanding of practice.
Practice of systems analysis and design is an important source for developing criticality. Reflecting on learnt knowledge and practice is important, but reflecting critically adds value. The relation between a PCF and practice is processual and interpretive rather than static and prescriptive. An analyst constructs a PCF processually, as they engage in actual situations. Taking action on the basis of a PCF will either lead to success or not. Successful action should reinforce a PCF and unsuccessful action should lead to revisions.

1.4.2 Understanding human action


Analysts’ action underpin PCF development. Objectification of personal constructs related to human action in a PCF, and its use to reflect on action, can improve effectiveness. The utility of knowledge for particular action determines the level of success achievable. Effective action is determined by knowledge of how to act. To understand human action and its effectiveness, researchers and practitioners probe questions concerning the combination of knowledge and practice that leads to effective action and how effectiveness can be improved.
There are two significant strands of research that develop knowledge of human action: planned action...

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