Attachment
eBook - ePub

Attachment

Expanding the Cultural Connections

Phyllis Erdman, Kok-Mun Ng, Phyllis Erdman, Kok-Mun Ng

Share book
  1. 346 pages
  2. English
  3. ePUB (mobile friendly)
  4. Available on iOS & Android
eBook - ePub

Attachment

Expanding the Cultural Connections

Phyllis Erdman, Kok-Mun Ng, Phyllis Erdman, Kok-Mun Ng

Book details
Book preview
Table of contents
Citations

About This Book

Attachment: Expanding the Cultural Connections is an exciting exploration of the latest trends in the theory and application of attachment within cross-cultural settings. The book's insightful analysis, remarkable case studies, and groundbreaking research make it essential reading for any clinician or scholar interested in perceptions of love and attachment.

Frequently asked questions

How do I cancel my subscription?
Simply head over to the account section in settings and click on ā€œCancel Subscriptionā€ - itā€™s as simple as that. After you cancel, your membership will stay active for the remainder of the time youā€™ve paid for. Learn more here.
Can/how do I download books?
At the moment all of our mobile-responsive ePub books are available to download via the app. Most of our PDFs are also available to download and we're working on making the final remaining ones downloadable now. Learn more here.
What is the difference between the pricing plans?
Both plans give you full access to the library and all of Perlegoā€™s features. The only differences are the price and subscription period: With the annual plan youā€™ll save around 30% compared to 12 months on the monthly plan.
What is Perlego?
We are an online textbook subscription service, where you can get access to an entire online library for less than the price of a single book per month. With over 1 million books across 1000+ topics, weā€™ve got you covered! Learn more here.
Do you support text-to-speech?
Look out for the read-aloud symbol on your next book to see if you can listen to it. The read-aloud tool reads text aloud for you, highlighting the text as it is being read. You can pause it, speed it up and slow it down. Learn more here.
Is Attachment an online PDF/ePUB?
Yes, you can access Attachment by Phyllis Erdman, Kok-Mun Ng, Phyllis Erdman, Kok-Mun Ng in PDF and/or ePUB format, as well as other popular books in Psychologie & Psychotherapeutische Beratung. We have over one million books available in our catalogue for you to explore.

Information

Publisher
Routledge
Year
2011
ISBN
9781136979330

Section II
Conceptual Extensions and Measurement Issues

2
Adult Attachment Reconceptualized A Chinese Perspective

CHIA-CHIH DC WANG and YOUNG S. SONG


CONTENTS


Adult Attachment and Crossāˆ’Cultural Research Findings
Cross-Cultural Validity of Adult Attachment
Comparison of Attachment Styles Between Eastern and Western Groups
Influences of Adult Attachment on Individualsā€™ Well-Being
Cultural Context and Adult Attachment
Self-Construals
Yuan
Filial Piety
Romantic Love
Dialectical Thinking Pattern
Chinese Adult Attachment Model
Perception of Oneā€™s Relational Status
Fulfillment of Oneā€™s Relational Obligations
Cultural Context and Chinese Attachment Model
Future Research Directions and Conclusion
References

After the application of attachment perspectives was expanded from parentā€“ child relationships to adult attachment in the 1980s, a rapidly growing body of empirical literature has used attachment theory as an organizational framework to conceptualize a wide range of psychosocial and relational issues in adulthood (Simpson & Rholes, 1998). Recently, the concept of adult attachment security has been promoted as a basis for understanding adult development of the ā€œhealthy and effective selfā€ (Lopez & Brennan, 2000). As the theory quickly gains popularity, however, awareness of the limitations on the theoryā€™s cross-cultural validity and potential overgeneralization of the Western-based attachment perspectives to non-Western adult populations has grown among adult attachment researchers (Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006). We believe that culture plays a critical role in the manifestation of attachment styles and behaviors in adults and that an accurate understanding of the guiding attachment system of non-Western individuals can only be obtained through considerations of relevant cultural contexts. In this chapter, we use Chinese culture to illustrate how cultural factors may affect adult attachment with an aim to offer an alternative attachment model consistent with indigenous Chinese cultural context. We begin with a brief review of basic attachment constructs and cross-cultural adult attachment research findings and then follow with introductions of some important cultural factors to provide readers the necessary understanding of the cultural context. Then, the proposed adult attachment model and its implications are presented and discussed.

ADULT ATTACHMENT AND CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH FINDINGS

According to attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969), the attachment system is an innate, goal-corrected control system, regulating behavior of both children and their caregivers to maintain a balance between exploring the environment and maintaining proximity between the child and the attachment figure(s). Children gradually develop different attachment styles based on perceived availability and responsiveness from their primary caretakers during childhood. It is believed that the attachment styles, once developed, remain relatively stable throughout the span of life and function as internal working models guiding a personā€™s interactions in all significant relationships (Bowlby, 1969).
The extension of attachment perspectives to adulthood began when adult romantic relationships were reconceptualized in terms of attachment theory (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). Contemporary adult attachment perspectives conceptualize individualsā€™ attachment based on two orthogonal dimensions: anxiety and avoidance. This two-dimensional adult attachment model is consistent with the internal working models of self and of others as proposed by the theory and has received clear empirical support (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998). Attachment security refers to those low on both dimensions. Adults with high attachment anxiety are likely to present characteristics such as lower sense of self-worth, fear of rejection and abandonment in relationships, emotional dependence, less social self-confidence, and obsessive/dependent love styles (Collins & Read, 1990). On the other hand, individuals high on attachment avoidance tend to demonstrate mistrust toward others, discomfort with social closeness, low intensity of love experiences, and excessive need for self-reliance (Feeney & Noller, 1990). Based on oneā€™s scores on these two dimensions, researchers may classify individuals into four categorical attachment styles: secure (low on both dimensions), preoccupied (high on anxiety but low on avoidance), dismissing (low on anxiety but high on avoidance), and fearful (high on both dimensions).

Cross-Cultural Validity of Adult Attachment

Bowlby (1969) contended that key elements of attachment theory are culturally universal because they apply to all members of the human species. This contention was given a strong initial impetus because early empirical attachment studies were replicated with motherā€“infant dyads in both Uganda and the United States (Ainsworth, 1967; Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). Many leading attachment researchers have also supported this notion (e.g., Main, 1990; van IJzendoorn & Sagi, 1999). Nevertheless, critics (e.g., Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000; Takahashi, 1990) have pointed out that the fundamental assumptions and philosophies underlying attachment concepts are deeply rooted in Western cultures and that the bulk of empirical studies supporting the theory were conducted in North America with White middle-class subjects. Therefore, they argue that attachment theory concepts are not cultural universals as proponents claim.
Empirical studies examining the universal applicability of attachment theory on non-Western adults are sparse as most cross-cultural attachment studies were found to focus on attachment in infancy and early childhood. We conducted a search for all adult attachment empirical studies in the PsycINFO database published before July 2008 that involve cross-cultural comparisons of adult attachment between Asian (or Asian American) and Western samples, and only seven studies were identified. These seven studies examined various cultural variations and functions of East Asian adult attachment styles, and are grouped into the following two sections based on the shared themes.

Comparison of Attachment Styles Between Eastern and Western Groups

In a study that examined the associations of attachment styles and social intimacy with friends, You and Malley-Morrison (2000) found that Korean students scored higher on preoccupied attachment, and lower on intimacy and expectations in friendships compared to their White American counterparts. The authors suspected that these findings may be related to cultural norms that are reflective of Korean practices. Koreans were identified to have stronger ties with families than with friends, when compared to White Americans. In another study, Malley-Morrison, You, and Mills (2000) investigated how attachment styles were associated with college studentsā€™ perceptions on abusive behaviors toward elders. They found that Korean students reported higher preoccupied attachment scores than White American college students and that among those who endorsed a preoccupied attachment style, Korean and White participants differed significantly in their perceptionsā€™ of abusive behaviors toward the elderly. Authors concluded that the interaction of culture and attachment styles accounted for the differences between the two groups. Findings from a large-scale cross-cultural study consisting of samples from 62 cultures conducted by Schmitt et al. (2004) indicated that preoccupied attachment styles were found to be particularly more prevalent in East Asian cultures (i.e., samples from Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan), and that participants from the East Asian region reported higher scores on the Internal
Working Model of Others. Researchers speculated that collectivistic orientation appeared to be associated with higher levels of preoccupied romantic attachment.
DiTommaso, Brannen, and Burgess (2005) also studied the relationships between attachment (including attachment with parents, romantic partners, and peers) and loneliness in a comparative study between Caucasian Canadian and Chinese international students. Chinese participants reported significantly lower attachment security in both romantic and peer relationships, but not attachment with parents, than their Canadian counterparts. In another study, Wang and Mallinckrodt (2006) found that the perception of optimal secure adult attachment held by Taiwanese college students contained significantly higher levels of attachment anxiety and avoidance than the ideal attachment security pictured by American college students, and that attachment anxiety was positively associated with interdependent (collectivistic) beliefs. The authors concluded that beliefs held in the Taiwanese culture included behavioral norms suggestive of Western-based attachment anxiety and avoidance.

Influences of Adult Attachment on Individualsā€™ Well-Being

Several studies have examined cultural differences in how attachment styles are manifested among Asian American adults and the associations between adult attachment and factors contributing to psychosocial functioning. Wei, Russell, Mallinckrodt, and Zakalik (2004) investigated the associations between negative mood and insecure adult attachment across four ethnic samples. The results indicated that Asian Americans reported higher attachment anxiety and higher attachment avoidance than their Caucasian peers. Furthermore, significant associations between insecure attachment and negative mood were found for all ethnic groups, but a significantly stronger association was found in the Asian American sample. Kim and Zane (2004) conducted a study with samples of Korean American and European American male batterers and found that higher attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance, along with the emotion of anger, were risk factors for marital violence. In addition, the authors found that Korean batterers endorsed higher levels of attachment avoidance when compared to their European counterparts, who endorsed higher levels of attachment anxiety, and that independent self-construal was found to mediate the influence of ethnicity on attachment avoidance. In another comparative study, Wang (2007) found a significant moderator effect of cultural group on the links of anxiety-depressive symptoms and anxiety-emotional expression. Specifically, attachment anxiety was found to be a significant predictor for Taiwanese emotional expression but not for the U.S. participants. The association between anxiety and depression for Taiwanese samples was also significantly greater than the one of the U.S. sample.
Based on the limited empirical literature available, two tentative conclusions can be drawn. First, Asian adults generally endorse higher attachment anxiety and avoidance when compared to individuals in Western societies. Second, the associations of adult attachment with some indicators of individualsā€™ psychosocial functioning appear to differ between Asian and Western samples.
In observing human behaviors and cultural phenomena across cultures, scholars have used the emic and etic methods. The emic methods describe behavior by using concepts endorsed only in that culture (Davidson, Jaccard, Triandis, Morales, & Diaz-Guerrero, 1976) where observations are described and understood primarily from an indigenous standpoint and considered culturally and historically bound (Morris, Leung, Ames, & Lickel, 1999). In contrast, the etic methodology uses universal categories or external criteria imposed by the researcher, such as theories, to explain human behavior (Davidson et al., 1976). Brislin (1976) stated that the goal of cross-cultural studies is twofold. They describe behaviors or interpret observed phenomena in any one culture taking into account what members of that particular group value as meaningful and important. Second, they aim to make generalizations across cultures and generate theories to best explain all human behavior. Researchers have argued that studies using only etic methods are not considered to be true cross-cultural research because information sensitive to a particular culture may be lost (Davidson et al., 1976). In review of the adult attachment literature, it is unfortunately evident that current literature of adult attachment studies almost exclusively take an etic approach, relying on Western-based attachment perspectives and instruments developed and validated in the United States to investigate Asian adult attachment.

CULTURAL CONTEXT AND ADULT ATTACHMENT

Attachment is described as mental representation of self, others, and the world (Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985). Adult attachment styles are distinctly developed patterns of relating to significant others and maintaining relationships that involve different strategies of affect regulation and interpersonal behaviors in response to actual or potential attachment threats. Although infantā€“caregiver attachment behaviors appear fundamentally similar in all members of the human species (van IJzendoorn & Sagi, 1999), the much greater scope for cultural influence and societal norms on adult attachment dramatically increases the likelihood that these constructs will diverge across cultures. Because Chinese styles of relatedness distinctly differ from those of Western cultures in many important aspects, taking an emic approach to create a culturally sensitive conceptual framework appears imperative for an accurate understanding of Chinese adultsā€™ attachment.
In the following section, we will introduce five cultural concepts identified from the literature, which particularly pertain to Chinese ways of relatedness, based on our understanding of Chinese cultural characteristics. The five cultural concepts are interdependent self-construals, yuan, filial piety, romantic love, and dialectical thinking. We propose that these five constructs encompass key cultural contexts for understanding the Chinese adult attachment model, which will then be further discussed in the chapterā€™s later section.

Self-Construals

Self-construal was conceptualized as a trait-like disposition involving beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and actions regarding oneā€™s relationship to others, especially the degree of separation or connectedness between the self and others (Triandis,
1996). In a comprehensive review of cultural influences on self-concept, Markus and Kitayama (1991) proposed two distinct types of self-construal: independent and interdependent. They suggested that individuals develop and define their self-construal based on cultural norms. For example, because Western culture generally values individualism, in which independence, uniqueness, and distinction of each individual are emphasized, in keeping with the general cultural norm, individuals from Western cultures develop a stronger independent self-construal. These individuals are characterized as having distinct selfā€“others boundaries, emphasizing identifiable inner attributes, abilities, and characteristics; pursuing goals of individual self-interest; and being direct in self-expression. When considering interpersonal relationships, people with an independent self-construal tend to consider the self and others as separate units (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
In contrast, many Asian cultures tend to endorse a collectivistic orientation, with emphasis on interdependence and connectedness among individuals. These cultural values strongly favor the development of an interdependent self-construal, in which the self is defined as inseparable from oneā€™s relational context (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Those with strong interdependent self-construal value harmonious interpersonal relationships, meeting oneā€™s social obligation, fitting in, and maintaining esteem and status as viewed by other members of oneā€™s social group. People with an interdependent self-construal define themselves by multiple relationships with significant others, and they believe that fulfillment of life comes mostly through seeking a harmonious integration between self and the surrounding social context (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1996).
The central tenets of Markus and Kitayamaā€™s (1991) proposed self-construals may have important implications for adult attachment. Conceptually, the Western attachment model consists of two orthogonal dimensions, with the underlying assumptions that the self is an independent entity from others and that the internal working model of self functions separately from the working model of others (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). This model is clearly rooted in Western individualistic philosophies. In other words, although the attachment framework may appear to be an effective framework for those with strong independent self-construals, it may not provide an accurate depiction of adult attachment in Asians who are likely to have stronger interdependent self-construals.

Yuan

Another concept featuring Chinese culture is yuan (
i_Imagein1
). Yuan can be understood as the predestined connection between two persons or the opportunity presented by fate for an upcoming event (Yang & H...

Table of contents