The Social Nature of Identity
The present chapter assumes the social nature of identity. It is not simply that the social world influences the way we perceive ourselves; rather, we conceptualize higher mental functions and our identity as produced through social interaction. This idea can be traced back to Vygotsky’s (1981) suggestion that psychological functions appear first in the inter-psychological domain before becoming intra-psychological. Equally, following from the work of Piaget (1923; 1932), it has been established that social relations of either cooperation or constraint have distinctive transformative effects on the development of cognition and morality (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006).
Cooley (1902) and Mead (1913) further emphasized the constitutive role of social relations. They focused on empathy and our capacity to self-reflect, which they conceptualized as emerging from and transformed by our social interactions. According to Mead (1934), self-reflection, understood as the capacity to reflect upon our thoughts, feelings and actions, is performed by taking an observer’s perspective upon one’s own self. Mead suggested that this is possible because self and other are part of a relatively stable social structure in which they frequently exchange social positions (i.e. students become teachers, teachers become students) first physically and later imaginatively. Thus, self (e.g. teacher) is able to take the perspective of the other (e.g. student) upon the self (and thus self-reflect) because she has actually been a student. Likewise, children are able to take the perspective of their parents upon themselves because they have occupied this position during play (Gillespie, 2006a). Accordingly, our self-perception, the way we see ourselves, is shaped by the ways we think that other people see us. This in turn is based on our movement through social space. The idea is that moving between social positions creates movement within the self, developing identities or voices within the self. The movement across national borders and between reference groups—the interculturality between people and groups—can become interculturality within individuals.
This socially situated approach to identity has been followed in our previous studies, where we showed how self-perception emerges out of social interaction in the context of tourists and locals (Gillespie, 2006b) and between immigrants/asylum seekers and locals (O’Sullivan-Lago, de Abreu & Burgess, 2008; Kadianaki, 2013; Gillespie, Kadianaki & O’Sullivan-Lago, 2012). Taken together we espouse a fundamentally ‘liquid’ approach to intercultural relations (Dervin, 2011). The question we address in the present chapter is: how can we turn such subtle theory into a functional methodology, which avoids the reification of cultures or identities?
Geographical Movement: An Identity Challenge
In this chapter, we will use the empirical site of immigration to analyze the ways that social encounters transform the self. Geographical movement, as that of immigration, has been shown to have a transformative effect to identity, for both immigrants and locals. The encounter of people with different languages, ideas and values in multicultural societies promotes changes at the level of how people perceive and define themselves (Chryssochoou, 2004).
Migrants are a heterogeneous group, which cannot be ‘lumped’ together (Gillespie, Howarth & Cornish, 2012). There are economic immigrants, political refugees, asylum seekers, sojourners, and highly skilled professionals seeking to gain expertise. However, migrants do share the basics of geographical movement, which tends to entail cultural encounters. They all have to deal with a more or less unfamiliar environment and culture, requiring the acquisition of new social and cognitive skills. Moreover, the encounter with alterity, that is with new ways of doing things, new values and new self-definitions, can stimulate change and self-reflection. Migrants often redefine their cultural values and practices (Knafo & Schwartz, 2001; Kwak, 2010), and they redefine their identity to different extents because of their encounters with new social others (Chryssochoou, 2000; 2004). But, of course, the content of those changes will vary. Migration due to economic hardship, being headhunted or getting married will each entail a different engagement with the local culture, which in turn will depend on the meaning of the migration for the people concerned.
Movement into a new environment brings about new positions that the self relates to, and dialogue between them produces self-transformation (Bhatia, 2002; König, 2009). Identity repositionings as they arise from movement are means to both achieve self-continuity (O’Sullivan-Lago & de Abreu, 2010) and to engage with self-transformation (Märtsin, 2009) as well as negotiate belongingness (Ali & Sonn, 2010).
Upon entering into a new social context, immigrants are positioned by others in terms of various social categories that they did not relate to before migrating, such as that of an immigrant, a foreigner, an asylum seeker. These social categories are laden with stigmatizing meanings of criminality, illegality, misery, poverty and even barbarity (Kadianaki, 2013). For these reasons immigration has been considered as a threat to identity (Timotijevic & Breakwell, 2000; Deaux, 2006), as it poses challenges to self-esteem, distinctiveness, continuity and self-efficacy (Breakwell, 1993).
Ethnicity memberships are also put into question: immigrants’ origin ethnicity may become distant or rejected by immigrants’ origin communities and stigmatized by the residence communities (Kadianaki, 2013), new ethnic memberships are imposed by residence societies (Yarborough, 2009) and others become available or unavailable. In each case ethnic membership is redefined because of immigrating (Verkuyten, 2005).
In short, immigrants have their identities reconstructed not only through encountering a new community, but also through renegotiating their relationship to their home community. Movement across physical space creates repositionings in the intra-psychological domain (Bhatia & Ram, 2001), at the level of personal meaning (Gillespie et al., 2012). The remainder of this chapter will propose a way of analyzing how individuals deal with this movement and what changes this movement produces in individuals’ identity.