Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture

John Sandford, John Sandford

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781136816109
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Sozialwissenschaften
• Subtopic: Ethnische Studien

With more than 1, 100 entries written by an international group of over 150 contributors, the Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture brings together myriad strands of social, political and cultural life in the post-1945 German-speaking world.

With a unique structure and format, an inclusive treatment of the concept of culture, and coverage of East, West and post-unification Germany, as well as Austria and Switzerland, the Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture is the first reference work of its kind.

Containing longer overviews of up to 2, 000 words, as well as shorter factual entries, cross-referencing to other relevant articles, useful further reading suggestions and extensive indexing, this highly useable volume provides the scholar, teacher, student or non-specialist with an astonishing breadth and depth of information.

A

Abgrenzung

This key term – translated variously as ‘separation’, ‘differentiation’ or ‘demarcation’, implying above all ‘drawing a clear boundary’ – was used by the GDR from 1970 onwards to assert its social, political and cultural differences from the FRG. It was designed to counter any impression that the arrival of an SPD-led government in Bonn and improvements in East-West relations might lead to an eventual merger of the two German states. Although socialism and capitalism might be able to coexist, they remained – in a phrase repeated by Erich Honecker – as irreconcilable as ‘fire and water’.

See also: German Question; Ostpolitik

John Sandford

Abitur

This ‘leaving certificate’ (from the Latin ‘abire’, to depart) is granted to pupils on passing an examination at the end of their thirteenth school-year, nine of which must be at the Gymnasium. Introduced in Prussia in 1788, the Abitur soon became the entry qualification for university and was associated, until 1919, with special privileges (Berechtigungswesen), primarily in military service. The Abitur is also known as Reifeprüfung, indicating that its holder has reached Hochschulreife, i.e. a particular level of intellectual maturity.

During the 1960s, rapid expansion in secondary education overtook higher education development, so that the Abitur no longer guarantees access to every university course, and special aptitude tests or high grades may be demanded by individual universities for specific subjects such as medicine or dentistry. A Central Admissions Board at Dortmund (Zentralstelle zur Vergabe von Studienplützen, ZVS) was introduced in 1972 to regulate university entrance procedures. By the mid-1960s some 4 to 7 percent of an age group took the Abitur, by 1989 this had risen to 24 percent and since unification this figure has increased to slightly over 30 percent. Shortage of university places in some subjects and diminished career prospects for academics, together with a growing demand for Abitur candidates in business and management, have resulted in a decline in university entrants from 90 percent of Abitur holders in the early 1970s to just over 60 percent by the late 1980s.

Since the 1972 reform, modified further in 1988, the nature of the Abitur has changed markedly: whilst still upholding the traditional German concept of general education, it seeks to promote greater flexibility and increased individual choice in curricula studies, allowing for more specialization. Final classification is arrived at via a combination of course-work and examination, with practical projects in subjects such as physical education, music and fine art. The actual examination concentrates on four subjects, one of which must be German, mathematics or a foreign language. One of these four subjects is examined orally. The qualification itself is based on single weighting for twenty-two basic courses, double weighting for six specialized courses of the student’s choice, and quadruple weighting for the four subjects examined. Assessment is on a points scale, with at least 280 points out of a possible 840 needed for a pass. As a result of the Republic’s federal structure, variations in assessment occur between individual Länder. This is taken into account by awarding candidates from different states special ‘malus’ or ‘bonus’ points. Since unification, the Abitur awarded in the former GDR has been adjusted to the requirements of the FRG.

The Austrian equivalent of the Abitur is the Matura and in Switzerland the Maturität, both words deriving from the Latin ‘maturus’. In both countries this qualification can be gained after twelve years of schooling. All three qualifications are recognized within the member countries of the European Union, just as equivalent diplomas are accepted in the FRG, provided the necessary standard of German is achieved.

Further Reading

Neather, E.J. (1993) ‘The Abitur Examination’, Language Learning Journal 70, 4: 19–21.

Hans J. Hahn

ABM

The Arbeitsbeschaffungsmaßnahmen (ABM) job creation scheme was established as an instrument of ‘active’ labour market policy by the Work Promotion Law of 1969 and by subsequent legal revisions, notably in 1986. Grants and subsidies can be provided for employment creation in situations where, for reasons of structural change, regional decline or the business cycle, substantial unemployment would otherwise occur. Difficult-to-place workers may also benefit. Normally, local authorities bear the cost of ABM, although in East Germany, where the scheme has played a vital role in the restructuring of the economy after unification, the Federal Labour Office pays. The young and long-term unemployed can benefit from the wage subsidies and rebates of social insurance and corporation tax paid to employers as an incentive to recruit these categories of worker.

Christopher H. Flockton

Abortion Law

Since June 1995 abortion in the FRG has been ruled by a law that allows the termination of a pregnancy within the first twelve weeks (the so-called Fristenläsung), but requires a previous consultation. The law (paragraphs 218–19b of the criminal code) somewhat ambiguously states that abortion within this time span is ‘exempt from punishment’, though it remains ‘illegal’. As a result, health care benefits (with certain exceptions) are no longer provided. After the obligatory consultation, the decision is left to the woman. However, since the setting-up of the lawful health centres providing counselling is the responsibility of each individual Land, the actual availability of these services differs from one region to another (with more restricted services in Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg).

After 1945, abortion in West Germany was illegal and generally punished with a prison sentence of up to five years (for the woman) and up to ten years (for the person performing the abortion). It was only in 1972 that a legal reform of abortion no longer made it a punishable offence. Preceded by a vehement public controversy, a law permitting an abortion performed by a medical doctor during the first three months of pregnancy (and after a prior consultation) became effective on 18 June 1974. However, due to the petition of two Länder, Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg, the Federal Constitutional Court dismissed the law in a verdict on 25 February 1975, arguing that it conflicted with the right to life of the unborn. A revised version took effect on 18 May 1976, legalizing abortion only on the basis of medical, eugenic, ethical or social grounds: (1) when the life of the pregnant woman was in jeopardy; (2) in case of damage to the child’s health; (3) if the pregnancy was the result of a rape; or (4) in case of substantial social or economic straits. In order to qualify for a legal abortion, the case had to be approved by a health centre or another doctor at least three days before it was performed. No doctor or medical staff could be required to perform an abortion.

In East Germany, abortion during the first three months of pregnancy was legalized in 1972. Unlike in West Germany, there was no mandatory counselling. The differences of the abortion laws in East and West Germany made it necessary after unification for a new legal basis to be developed. In June 1992 the parliament opted for a concept of legal abortion during the first three months of pregnancy combined with a mandatory consultation. As a result of a petition by CDU/CSU politicians, however, the Federal Constitutional Court dismissed the concept before it became law.

In Austria, abortion is legal during the first three months of pregnancy, whereas in Switzerland, abortion is generally a punishable offence except in cases of a proven medical condition.

Further Reading

Staupe, G. and Vieth, L. (eds) (1996) Unter anderen Umstünden, Dortmund: Ebersbach (on the history of abortion in Germany).

Margrit Frölich

Abwicklung

Originally a term used in the economic field to denote the ‘winding-up’ or liquidation of a company, it was applied from 1990 to describe the process of restructuring GDR companies and other institutions after unification. This process in the economic field was presided over by the Treuhand, which had been given the task in the Unification Treaty of preparing East German firms for privatization. The term came to be used as one of abuse, especially in the eastern Länder, because in many cases restructuring meant either the complete closure of a company or institution or a radical reduction in the workforce.

Peter Barker

Academies

Evolving from Plato’s academic grove, where Athenian philosophers would meet to discuss their ideas, the academy as a concept or institution has undergone several changes during its long history. During the Enlightenment academies became important institutions for scholarly tuition, specializing in one or two subjects. With the development of the Humboldtian university concept, they became marginalized as research institutions and meeting places for leading academics.

As a consequence of Germany’s particularist history, a great number of academies developed, usually situated in the capital cities of the more progressive German states. Today such academies can be divided into bodies for the promotion of science or scholarship in general, for the cultivation of German language and literature, and for the arts. Academies for specific disciplines such as architecture or medicine and others which pursue a broader political, ethical or religious interest also exist.

Historically the most prestigious academy was the Berlin Academy of Science, founded in 1700 as the Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaft, under the influence of the philosopher G.W. Leibniz. In 1946, in accordance with Soviet principles, it was reformed into an association of scholars and undertook the role of co-ordinating GDR research programmes, in association with some fifty-five institutions and laboratories, chiefly dedicated to the promotion of the natural sciences but also charged with specific projects in industry. By the mid-1980s almost half of the Academy’s work was geared towards such projects. In ideological terms the Academy was integrated into the GDR’s scientific and socialist revolution, working in close association with the SED in its anticipation of new research demands, in offering advice on specific research programmes, and in coordinating research nationwide. The Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, its title after 1972, acquired an international reputation, particularly as far as basic research was concerned. The increasing isolation of the GDR after 1961 and a growing emphasis on specific government-generated projects in the 1980s caused the Academy to lose some of its prestige. With German unification it became the main victim of Abwicklung, a controversial programme to disestablish most East German non-university institutes and to attempt their integration into other research organizations and universities. By December 1992, this policy affected some 2,000 academics who were either transferred to universities, assigned to the MaxPlanck-Gesellschaft or lost their jobs.

The Berlin-Brandenburg Akademie der Künste (Academy of Arts) celebrated its 300th anniversary in 1996. Under the presidency of Walter Jens, it is one of Germany’s most renowned academies for the fine arts and literature, dedicated to the free expression of ideas. It has become an important link in reconciling the two former Germanys.

Scholarly academies in the FRG have followed a more traditional role than those of the GDR, serving as learned associations, independent of government policy, but charged with the promotion of basic and interdisciplinary research. Most of these academies divide into different specialisms, concentrating on research in science, language and literature, philosophy, geography, the fine arts, architecture and music. In general, each has a membership of approximately thirty chiefly distinguished scholars, artists or writers who elect their president from amongst their number. Most of their findings appear in special yearbooks. Occasionally, and usually at the behest of the membership, special research projects are sponsored, but most of these function outside the scope of the academy. This type of academy is usually financed by the individual Land government, with central government funding only in exceptional circumstances.

Since 1945 the term Akademie has also been used to define other institutions which seek to influence public opinion and government policy through the organization of conferences, political seminars and briefings. The two main churches, in particular, have sought to encourage dialogue, partly in order to foster the debate on Germany’s Vergangenheitsbewältigung, but also as a forum for the discussion of current ethical, social and religious themes (see churches and religion). The Protestant church founded its first academy in Bad Boll, followed by Tutzing and sixteen other towns. These Evangelische Akademien, open to everyone, are financed by the individual Landeskirche and aim to provide a third place, outside of work and home, for political, educational and religious groups. Following the Second Vatican Council, the Catholic church also established academies designed to bridge the gulf between catholic dogma and contemporary intellectual, cultural and economic issues. With financial control and the nomination of members in the hands of individual episcopacies, their influence and scope seem more limited.

The various political parties have also organized their own academies as centres for dialogue and forums for public relations. The Politische Akademie Eichholz is run by the Konrad Adenauer Foundation (CDU), while the Theodor-Heuß-Akademie comes under the Friedrich Naumann Foundation (F.D.P.). The Akademie für politische Bildung (political education) in Tutzing is not associated with an individual political party, but caters for all those in regular contact with pol...