Nanobiomaterials in Clinical Dentistry

Karthikeyan Subramani, Waqar Ahmed

• Publisher: Elsevier
• Year: 2019
• eBook ISBN: 9780128158876
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Materials Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Nanobiomaterials in Clinical Dentistry, Second Edition shows how a variety of nanomaterials are being used to solve problems in clinical dentistry. New nanomaterials are leading to a range of emerging dental treatments that utilize more biomimetic materials that more closely duplicate natural tooth structure (or bone, in the case of implants). The book's chapters discuss the advantages and challenges of using nanomaterials and include case studies to illustrate how a variety of materials are best used in research and practice.- Contains information from an interdisciplinary, international group of scientists and practitioners in the fields of nanomaterials, dental implants, medical devices and clinical practice- Presents a comprehensive reference on the subject that covers material fabrication and the use of materials for all major diagnostic and therapeutic dental applications--repair, restoration, regeneration, implants and prevention- Complements the editors' previous book on nanotechnology applications for dentistry

Section 1

Introduction

Outline

• Chapter 1 Introduction to nanotechnology
• Chapter 2 Nanotechnology and nanobiomaterials in dentistry

Chapter 1

Introduction to nanotechnology

Karthikeyan Subramani¹, Abdelbary Elhissi², Usha Subbiah³ and Waqar Ahmed⁴, ¹Advanced Education in Orthodontics & Dentofacial Orthopedics, College of Dental Medicine, Roseman University of Health Sciences, Henderson, NV, United States, ²Office of the Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar, ³Department of Human Genetics Laboratory, Sree Balaji Dental College and Hospital, Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, India, ⁴School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom

Abstract

Nanotechnology describes the science and technology related to the control and manipulation of matter and devices on a scale less than 100 nm and involves fields such as applied physics, materials science, chemistry, biology, biomedical engineering, surface science, electrical engineering, and robotics. At the nanoscale level, the properties of matter are dictated and there are fewer boundaries between scientific disciplines. There are two main approaches that have been used in nanotechnology. These are known as the “bottom-up” and “top-down” approaches. The former involves building up from atoms into molecules to assemble nanostructures, materials, and devices. The second approach involves making structures and devices from larger entities without specific control at the atomic level. Progress in both approaches has been accelerated in recent years with the development and application of highly sensitive instruments. For example, atomic force microscopy, scanning tunneling microscopy, electron beam lithography, molecular beam epitaxy, etc. have become available to push forward developments in this exciting new field. These instruments allow observation and manipulation of novel nanostructures. By investigating and understanding the functionality of materials at the micro/nanoscale level, the scientific community is working toward finding new techniques to achieve maximum functional output from these materials with minimum energy and resource input. Research is being carried out worldwide to understand the advantages and limitations of nanotechnology and its applications in a wide range of disciplines from material science, biomedical research, to space research. In medicine, nanotechnology is being used in nanoparticle-based drug delivery, nanoscale diagnostic tools, tissue engineering, and biosensors. For dentistry, extensive research has recently explored the applications of nanotechnology in dental biomaterials, dental implantology, dental instruments, nanoparticles/scaffolds for bone regeneration around dental implants and the maxillofacial region, and nanodiagnostic tools to diagnose oral pathology. This chapter outlines some applications of nanotechnology in dentistry which are described in detail in subsequent chapters of this book.

Keywords

Nanotechnology; dental biomaterials; dental implantology; nanoparticles; nanomaterials

1.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology has been around since the beginning of time. Nature has always routinely used nanotechnology to synthesize molecular structures in the body, such as enzymes, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, which form components of cellular structures. However, the formal discovery of nanotechnology has been widely attributed to the American physicist and Nobel Laureate Dr. Richard Phillips Feynman [1] who presented a paper called There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom on December 29, 1959, at the annual meeting of the American Physical Society at California Institute of Technology.

Feynman talked about the storage of information on a very small scale, writing and reading in atoms, about miniaturization of the computer, building tiny machines, tiny factories, and electronic circuits with atoms. He stated that “In the year 2000, when they look back at this age, they will wonder why it was not until the year 1960 that anybody began seriously to move in this direction.” However, he did not specifically use the term nanotechnology. The first use of the word “nanotechnology” has been attributed to Norio Taniguchi [2] in a paper published in 1974 “On the Basic Concept of NanoTechnology.” Dr. K. Eric Drexler, an MIT graduate later took Feynman’s concept of a billion tiny factories and added the idea that they could make more copies of themselves, via computer control instead of control by a human operator, in his 1986 book “Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology,” to popularize the potential of nanotechnology.

Several definitions of nanotechnology have evolved since then. For example, the dictionary [3] definition states that nanotechnology is “the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale especially to build microscopic devices.” Other definitions include the US government [4] which states that “Nanotechnology is research and technology development at the atomic, molecular or macromolecular level in the length scale of approximately 1–100 nm range, to provide a fundamental understanding of phenomena and materials at the nanoscale and to create and use structures, devices and systems that have novel properties and functions because of their small and/or intermediate size.” The Japanese [5] have come up with a more focused and succinct definition. “True nano” as nanotechnology which is expected to cause scientific or technological quantum jumps, or to provide great industrial applications by using phenomena and characteristics particular to the nano-level.

It is evident regardless of the definition used that the properties of matter are controlled at a scale between 1 and 100 nm. For example, chemical properties take advantage of the large surface-to-volume ratio for catalysis, interfacial and surface chemistry is important in many applications. The mechanical properties involve improved strength hardness in lightweight nanocomposites and nanomaterials, altered bending, compression properties, and nanomechanics of molecular structures. Optical properties involve absorption and fluorescence of nanocrystals, single-photon phenomena, and photonic band gap engineering. Fluidic properties give rise to enhanced flow using nanoparticles and nanoscale adsorbed films are also important. Thermal properties give increased thermoelectric performance of nanoscale materials, and interfacial thermal resistance is also important.

1.2 Approaches to Nanotechnology

Numerous approaches have been utilized successfully in nanotechnology, and as the technology develops further approaches may emerge. The approaches employed thus far have generally been dictated by the technology available and the background experience of the researchers involved. Nanotechnology is a truly multidisciplinary field involving chemistry, physics, biology, engineering, electronics, social sciences, etc., which need to be integrated together in order to generate the next level of development in nanotechnology. Fuel cells, mechanically stronger materials, nanobiological devices, molecular electronics, quantum devices, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), etc. have made use of nanotechnology. Even social scientists are debating the ethical use of nanotechnology.

The “top-down” approach involves fabrication of device structures via monolithic processing on the nanoscale and has been used with spectacular success in semiconductor devices used in consumer electronics. The “bottom-up approach” involves the fabrication of device structures via systematic assembly of atoms, molecules, or other basic units of matter. This is the approach nature uses to repair cells, tissues, and organ systems in living things and indeed for life processes such as protein synthesis. Tools are evolving which will give scientists greater control over the synthesis and characterization of novel nanostructures yielding a range of new products in the near future.

1.3 Nanotechnology on a Large Scale and Volume

Nanotechnology is being researched extensively internationally, and governments and research organizations are spending large amounts of money and human resources on nanotechnology. This has generated interesting scientific output and potential commercial applications, some of which have been translated into products produced on a large scale. However, in order to realize commercial benefits far more from lab-scale applications they need to be commercialized, and for that to happen nanotechnology needs to enter the realm of nanomanufacturing. This involves using the technologies available to produce products on a large scale, which is economically viable. A nanomanufacturing technology should be:

• • Capable of producing components with nanometer precision;
• • Able to create systems from these components;
• • Able to produce many systems simultaneously;
• • Able to structure in three dimensions;
• • Cost-effective.

1.3.1 Top-Down Approach

The most successful industry utilizing the top-down approach is the electronics industry. This industry is utilizing techniques involving a range of technologies such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD), lithography (photolithography, electron beam, and X-ray lithography), wet and plasma etching, etc., to generate functional structures at the micro- and nanoscale (Fig. 1.1). The evolution and development of these technologies have allowed the emergence of numerous electronic products and devices that have enhanced the quality of life throughout the world. The feature sizes have shrinked continuously from about 75 µm to below 100 nm. This has been achieved by improvements in deposition technology and more importantly due to the development of lithographic techniques and equipment such as X-ray lithography and electron beam lithography.

Figure 1.1 A typical process sequence employed in the electronics industry to generate functional devices at the micro- and nanoscale [6].

Techniques such as electron beam lithography, X-ray lithography, and ion beam lithography, all have advantages in terms of resolution achieved, however, there are disadvantages associated with cost, “optics,” and detrimental effects on the substrate. These methods are currently under investigation to improve upon the current lithographic process used in the IC industry. With continuous developments in these technologies, it is highly likely that the transition from microtechnology to nanotechnology will generate a whole new generation of exciting products and features.

A demonstration of how several techniques can be combined together to form a “nano” wine glass is given in Fig. 1.2. In this example, a focused ion beam and CVD have been employed to produce this striking nanostructure.

Figure 1.2 Demonstration of three-dimensional nanostructure fabrication [7].

The top-down approach is used to apply various coatings to give improved functionality. For example, vascular stents are coated using CVD technology with ultra-thin diamond-like...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Dedication
• List of Contributors
• Foreword
• Foreword
• Section 1: Introduction
• Section 2: Nanoscale materials and their applications in dental biomaterials
• Section 3: Nanobiomaterials in preventive dentistry
• Section 4: Nanobiomaterials in orthodontics
• Section 5: Nanobiomaterials in prosthodontics and restorative dentistry
• Section 6: Nanobiomaterials in periodontics, implant dentistry and dental tissue engineering
• Section 7: Salivary diagnostics and nanoparticles as dental drug delivery systems and their biocompatibility/toxicity
• Index