The Adult Learner
eBook - ePub

The Adult Learner

The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development

Malcolm S. Knowles, Elwood F. Holton III, Richard A. Swanson, RICHARD SWANSON, Petra A. Robinson

Share book
  1. 392 pages
  2. English
  3. ePUB (mobile friendly)
  4. Available on iOS & Android
eBook - ePub

The Adult Learner

The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development

Malcolm S. Knowles, Elwood F. Holton III, Richard A. Swanson, RICHARD SWANSON, Petra A. Robinson

Book details
Book preview
Table of contents
Citations

About This Book

How do you tailor education to the learning needs of adults? Do they learn differently from children? How does their life experience inform their learning processes? These were the questions at the heart of Malcolm Knowles' pioneering theory of andragogy which transformed education theory in the 1970s. The resulting principles of a self-directed, experiential, problem-centred approach to learning have been hugely influential and are still the basis of the learning practices we use today.

Understanding these principles is the cornerstone of increasing motivation and enabling adult learners to achieve. The 9th edition of The Adult Learner has been revised to include:

  • Updates to the book to reflect the very latest advancements in the field.


  • The addition of two new chapters on diversity and inclusion in adult learning, and andragogy and the online adult learner.


  • An updated supporting website. This website for the 9th edition of The Adult Learner will provide basic instructor aids includinga PowerPoint presentation for each chapter.
  • Revisions throughout to make it more readable and relevant to your practices.

If you are a researcher, practitioner, or student in education, an adult learning practitioner, training manager, or involved in human resource development, this is the definitive book in adult learning you should not be without.

Frequently asked questions

How do I cancel my subscription?
Simply head over to the account section in settings and click on “Cancel Subscription” - it’s as simple as that. After you cancel, your membership will stay active for the remainder of the time you’ve paid for. Learn more here.
Can/how do I download books?
At the moment all of our mobile-responsive ePub books are available to download via the app. Most of our PDFs are also available to download and we're working on making the final remaining ones downloadable now. Learn more here.
What is the difference between the pricing plans?
Both plans give you full access to the library and all of Perlego’s features. The only differences are the price and subscription period: With the annual plan you’ll save around 30% compared to 12 months on the monthly plan.
What is Perlego?
We are an online textbook subscription service, where you can get access to an entire online library for less than the price of a single book per month. With over 1 million books across 1000+ topics, we’ve got you covered! Learn more here.
Do you support text-to-speech?
Look out for the read-aloud symbol on your next book to see if you can listen to it. The read-aloud tool reads text aloud for you, highlighting the text as it is being read. You can pause it, speed it up and slow it down. Learn more here.
Is The Adult Learner an online PDF/ePUB?
Yes, you can access The Adult Learner by Malcolm S. Knowles, Elwood F. Holton III, Richard A. Swanson, RICHARD SWANSON, Petra A. Robinson in PDF and/or ePUB format, as well as other popular books in Business & Business General. We have over one million books available in our catalogue for you to explore.

Information

Publisher
Routledge
Year
2020
ISBN
9781000072914
Edition
9

Part 1

Adult learning

1 Introduction to adult learning

In the early 1970s, when andragogy and the concept that adults and children learn differently was first introduced in the United States by Malcolm Knowles, the idea was groundbreaking and sparked a great deal of research and controversy. Since the earliest days, adult educators have debated the essence of andragogy. Spurred in large part by the need for a defining theory within the field of adult education (AE), andragogy has been extensively analyzed and critiqued. It has been alternately described as a set of guidelines (Merriam, 1993), a philosophy (Pratt, 1993), a set of assumptions (Brookfield, 1986), and a theory (Knowles, 1989). The disparity of these positions is indicative of the complex nature of adult learning. Regardless of what it is called, “andragogy is an honest attempt to focus on the learner. In this sense, it does provide an alternative to the methodology-centered instructional design perspective” (Feur and Gerber, 1988, p. 3). Merriam et al. (2007), in explaining the complexity and present condition of adult learning theory, offer the following:
It is doubtful that a phenomenon as complex as adult learning will ever be explained by a single theory, model, or set of principles. Instead, we have a case of the proverbial elephant being described differently depending on who is talking and on which part of the animal is examined. In the first half of this century, psychologists took the lead in explaining learning behavior; from the 1960s onward, adult educators began formulating their own ideas about adult learning and, in particular, about how it might differ from learning in childhood. Both of these approaches are still operative. Where we are headed, it seems, is toward a multifaceted understanding of adult learning, reflecting the inherent richness and complexity of the phenomenon.
(p. 83)
Despite years of critique, debate, and challenge, the core principles of adult learning advanced by andragogy have endured (Davenport and Davenport, 1985; Hartree, 1984; Pratt, 1988). Few adult learning scholars would disagree with the observation that Knowles’ ideas sparked a revolution in AE and workplace learning (Feur and Gerber, 1988). Brookfield (1986), positing a similar view, asserts that andragogy is the “single most popular idea in the education and training of adults.” Adult educators, particularly beginning ones, find these core principles invaluable in the practical challenge of shaping the learning process for adults.
It is beyond the scope of this introductory book to address all the dimensions of the theoretical debate raised in academic circles. Our position is that andragogy presents core principles of adult learning that in turn enable those designing and conducting adult learning to build more effective learning processes for adults. It is a transactional model that speaks to the characteristics of the learning transaction, not to the esoteric goals and aims of that transaction. Thus, andragogy is applicable to any adult learning transaction, from community education to human resource development (HRD) in organizations.
Care must be taken to avoid confusing core principles of the adult learning transaction with the goals and purposes for which the learning event is being conducted. They are conceptually distinct, though as a practical matter may at times overlap. Critiques of andragogy point to missing elements that keep it from being a defining theory of the discipline of adult education (Davenport and Davenport, 1985; Grace, 1996; Hartree, 1984), not of adult learning. Grace (1996), for example, criticizes andragogy for focusing solely on the individual, and not operating from a critical social agenda or debating the relationship of AE to society. This criticism reflects the goals and purposes of the discipline of AE. Human resource development in organizations has a different set of goals and purposes, which andragogy also does not embrace. Community health educators have yet another set of goals and purposes that are not embraced.
We see the strength of andragogy as a set of core adult learning principles that apply to all adult learning situations. The goals and purposes for which the learning is offered are a separate issue. Adult education professionals should develop and debate models of adult learning separately from models of the goals and purposes of their respective fields that foster adult learning. Human resource development, for example, embraces organizational performance as one of its core goals, whereas AE focuses more on individual growth.
It is important to note that these core principles are incomplete in terms of learning decisions. Figure 1.1 graphically shows that andragogy is a core set of adult learning principles. The six principles of andragogy are: (1) the learner’s need to know; (2) self-concept of the learner; (3) prior experience of the learner; (4) readiness to learn; (5) orientation to learning; and (6) motivation to learn. These principles are listed in the center of the model. As you will see in this and subsequent chapters, there are a variety of other factors that affect adult learning in any particular situation, and may cause adults to behave more or less closely to the core principles. Shown in the two outer rings of the model, they include individual learner and situational differences, and goals and purposes for learning. Andragogy works best in practice when it is adapted to fit the uniqueness of the learners and the learning situation. We see this not as a weakness of the principles, but as a strength. Their strength is that these core principles apply to all adult learning situations, as long as they are considered in concert with other factors that are present in the situation.
Figure 1.1 Andragogy in practice
Source: Knowles et al. (1998)
This ninth edition of The Adult Learner provides a journey from theory to practice in adult learning. Figure 1.1 provides a snapshot summary of considerations within the journey in displaying the six core adult learning principles surrounded by the context of individual and situational differences, and the goals and purposes of learning. The following chapters will reveal the substance and subtleties of this holistic model of andragogy in practice.

Plan for the book

The first part of the book, “Adult Learning” (Chapters 1–5), presents the introduction to the book and adult learning (Chapters 1 and 2), the andragogical perspective on adult learning (Chapters 3 and 4), and the presentation of the andragogy in practice model (Chapter 5). Part 2, “The Backdrop of Learning and Teaching Theories” (Chapters 6–8), presents theories of learning in Chapter 6 and theories of teaching in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 presents principles for adult learning within human resource development.
Part 3, “Advancements in Adult Learning” (Chapters 9–14), explores new perspectives on andragogy (Chapter 9), beyond andragogy (Chapter 10), diversity and inclusion in the adult education classroom (Chapter 11), and neuroscience and andragogy (Chapter 12). Chapter 13, “Andragogy and Adult Online Learning,” and Chapter 14, “Effective Computer-Based Instruction for Adults,” extend andragogy into the realm of adult learning using technology.
Part 4, “International and Future Perspectives on Andragogy” (Chapters 15–17), looks beyond the boundaries of geography, context, culture, and time. Specific topics include European perspectives on adult learning (Chapter 15), andragogy: history, meaning, context, and function (Chapter 16), and the future of andragogy (Chapter 17). Chapter 17 offers a research agenda for andragogy using quantitative and qualitative methods.
Part 5, “Tools and Resources for Implementing Andragogy” (Chapters 18–22), offers a new toolkit for facilitators of andragogical adult learning. Chapter 18, “Andragogical Learner Analysis Using the Andragogy in Practice Framework,” covers a methodology for assessing learning situations and learners using the andragogy in practice framework. Two case studies are included. Chapter 19, “Andragogy in Practice Inventory,” releases the newest version of the API, a research-based assessment instrument. Chapter 20 offers Knowles’ time-tested guidelines for the use of learning contracts. Chapters 21 and 22 cover two self-development tools, the competency diagnostic and planning guide for adult educators/trainers (Chapter 21) and the personal adult learning style inventory (Chapter 22).
Reflection questions
1.1 What are your general thoughts on how humans learn?
1.2 Based on personal experience, what key factors are related to adult learning?
1.3 Why is andragogy in practice (Figure 1.1) presented as a holistic learning model?
1.4 If you understood more about how adults learn, how would you use this information in your day-to-day life?
1.5 If you understood more about how adults learn, how would you use this information in your work as an educator/teacher/trainer?

2 Exploring the world of learning theory

Introduction

While there still remains a great deal of mystery as to how human beings learn and the brain functions, we do know a great deal about this realm. Throughout history, there have been events and movements that have punctuated the knowledge base. Political enlightenment, world wars, and advances in technology are just a few. Influential scholars and practitioners have led the way.

Why explore learning theory?

This is a good question. Perhaps you shouldn’t. If you have no questions about the quality of learning in your organization, or if you are sure it’s the best it can be, we suggest that you cancel your purchase of this book and get a refund. However, if you’re a policy-level leader, a change agent, a learning specialist, or a consultant, you should seriously consider exploring learning theory. Doing so will increase your understanding of the range of learning theories, and your chances for achieving your desired results.
Policy-level leaders may have such questions as: Are our human resource development (HRD) interventions based on assumptions about human nature and organizational life that are congruent with the assumptions on which our management policies are based? Are our human resource decisions contributing to long-run gains in our human capital, or only short-run cost reduction? Why do our HRD personnel make the decisions that they do concerning priorities, activities, methods and techniques, materials, and the use of outside resources (consultants, package programs, hardware, software, and university courses)? Are these the best decisions? How can I assess whether or not, or to what degree, the program is producing the results I want?
Managers may have all of these questions plus others, such as: Which learning theory is most appropriate for which kind of required learning, or should our entire program be faithful to a single learning theory? How do I find out what learning theories are being followed by the various consultants, off-the-shelf programs, and other outside learning resources that are available to us? What difference might their theoretical orientation make in our program? What are the implications of the various learning theories for our program development, selection and training of instructional personnel, administrative policies and practices, facilities, and program evaluation?
Learning specialists (instructors, curriculum builders, and methods, materials, and media developers) may have some of the previous questions in addition to the following: How can I increase my effectiveness as a learning specialist? Which techniques will be most effective for particular situations? Which learning theories are most congruent with my own view of human nature and the purpose of education? What are the implications of the various learning theories for my own role and performance?
Consultants (change agents, experts, and advocates) may have some of these same questions plus others, such as: Which learning theory should I advocate under what circumstances? How shall I explain the nature and consequences of the various learning theories to my clients? What are the implications of the various learning theories for total organizational development? Which learning theory is most consistent with my conception of the role of consultant?
A good theory should provide explanations of phenomena as well as guidelines for action. But theories about human behavior also carry with them assumptions about human nature, the purpose of education, and desirable values. Understandably, then, a better understanding of the various learning theories will result in better decisions regarding learning experiences, more predictable outcomes, and more desirable results.

What is a theory?

It seems that most adult learning authors do not define the term theory, but expect their readers to derive its meaning from their use of the term. “A theory simply explains what a phenomenon is and how it works” (Torraco, 1997, p. 115). “Applied disciplines are realms of study and practice that are fully understood through their use in t...

Table of contents