Climate Change and Plants

Biodiversity, Growth and Interactions

Shah Fahad, Osman Sonmez, Shah Saud, Depeng Wang, Chao Wu, Muhammad Adnan, Veysel Turan, Shah Fahad, Osman Sonmez, Shah Saud, Depeng Wang, Chao Wu, Muhammad Adnan, Veysel Turan

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781000379792
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Sciences biologiques
• Subtopic: Botanique

Climate Change and Plants: Biodiversity, Growth and Interactions

Evidence is raised daily of the varying climate and its impression on both plants and animals. Climatic changes influence all agriculture factors, which can potentially adversely affect their productivity. Plant activities are intimately associated with climate and concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Climate Change and Plants: Biodiversity, Growth and Interactions examines how plant growth characters influence and is influenced by climate change both in past and present scenarios. This book covers cutting-edge research of key determinants of plant growth in response to atmospheric CO2 enhancement and global warming.

Features

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• Discourses numerous areas of sustainable development goals projected by the UN as part of the 2030 agenda

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• Highlights appropriate approaches for maintaining better plant growth under changing climatic conditions

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• Presents diversity of techniques used across plant science

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• Is designed to cater to the needs of researchers, technologists, policymakers and undergraduate and postgraduate students studying sustainable crop production and protection

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• Addresses plant responses to atmospheric CO2 increases

1

Agriculture Contribution toward Global Warming

Hafiz Muhammad Rashad Javeed¹, Nadia Iqbal², Mazhar Ali¹, and Nasir Masood²

¹Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari Campus

²Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, The Women University, Multan

1.1 Agriculture and Climate Change

Pakistan is known as an agricultural country as the agriculture sector contributes the main share of the economy of Pakistan. Agriculture continues to be the major provider of employment to the rural community and the basic needs of life for more than 70% of our population. Agriculture is supposed to be the backbone of our country’s economy as it is the single largest sector having 21.8% share in Pakistan’s economy. Agriculture contributes to the growth and development of our economy as it is the primary supplier of raw materials to industries and a large market as well for industrial products, that is, pesticides, fertilizers, tractors, and combines harvesters.

Substantially it contributes to foreign exchange. More than half of Pakistan’s population belongs to rural areas, which are directly or indirectly linked to the agriculture industry for the basic necessities of life. Although all the sectors are susceptible to climatic changes, agriculture is the most. Within the past few decades, the agriculture sector is facing many difficulties, including climate change, water scarcity, and poor production of crop. While the impacts of climatic change are getting severe day by day, climate change and agriculture are linked as both take place on a global level. Climate change encounters agricultural productivities in several ways, that is, irregular patterns of rainfall, temperature fluctuations, heat waves, and changes in sea level (Adnan et al. 2018a,b; Ahmad et al. 2019; Akram et al. 2018a,b; Wang et al. 2018; Fahad and Bano 2012; Fahad et al. 2013; Farhat et al. 2020; Gul et al. 2020; Habib ur Rahman et al. 2017; Hammad et al. 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020a,b; Hussain et al. 2019, 2020; Ilyas et al. 2020; Jan et al. 2019; Kamarn et al. 2017; Khan et al. 2017a,b; Mubeen et al. 2020; Muhammad et al. 2019; Naseem et al. 2017; Rehman et al. 2020; Saleem et al. 2020a,b,c; Saud et al. 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2020; Shafi et al. 2020; Shah et al. 2013; Subhan et al. 2020; Wahid et al. 2020; Wu et al. 2019, 2020; Yang et al. 2017; Zahida et al. 2017; Zafar-ul-Hye et al. 2020a,b; Zaman et al. 2017; Zamin et al. 2019). Further climate change is already negatively affecting crop production worldwide. Among the major determinants related to agricultural productivity, climate/weather could be the most significant factor on a global scale (Faostat 2010). Increasing average annual temperatures, seasonal variations, changing rainfall patterns, and floods and droughts are some of the main impacts of climate change.

Wheat, being the major staple of the South-Asian region, faces severe calamities caused by climate change. Due to seasonal variations, the growth period of wheat has been shortened, which ultimately have negative impacts on potential production and quality of wheat. Among these climatic variables that adversely affect wheat production temperature is an important variable to consider. Temperature affects the wheat crop throughout the season from sowing to harvesting. Rainfall also has a significant but positive role toward wheat productivity if it occurs in proper frequency and at critical growth stages of the wheat crop. Thus, the measure of the impacts of climate change on wheat productivity can provide us with some important perspectives, which may help us to combat the prevailing climate changes and a sufficient knowledge to adapt these climatic variations. By the end of the 21st century, there could be an increase in the average global temperature of 1.4°C to 5.8°C, resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases (Houghton et al. 2001).

1.2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

According to a report on climate change by IPCC, the average air temperature would rise by 1.4°C to 5.8°C by the end of the 21st century. This rise in temperature would shorten the growing seasons of different crops due to changing growing patterns, for example, early flowering and fruit bearing, and as a result of enhanced respiration activities, there must be a decrease in the nutrient supply to the seed, which substantially lead the seeds to not be developed fully. Magrin et al. (2009) reported that the potential yields of wheat had been declining at increasing rates since the mid-20th century mainly due to minimum rises in temperature. Further temperature variations will lead to declined potential wheat yield for each 1°C rise in temperature (Fahad et al. 2016a,b,c,d). Zhu (2004) reported that the decreased yields of wheat crop could be the result of short growth periods. As increased temperatures accelerate the plant’s metabolic activities so that they mature earlier, hence, they reduce the potential yields by reducing the time span of full development. Increased temperatures aggravate water stress. As water is an essential element for crop growth and potential yields, hot and humid weather conditions also contribute to the prevalence of insect pests, diseases, and weed infestations. As a result of global climate changes, by 2080, there would be a 14% decrease in winter wheat yields. You et al. (2005) reported that a 1% increase in temperature of wheat growing season reduced the potential yields by about 0.3%. Wajid et al. (2007) studied that drought has significantly reduced the potential wheat productions.

Globalization also has some adverse impacts on our environment. According to statistics reported by the World Bank, deforestation contributes up to 20% of the total global carbon emissions. The increasing global trades have also encouraged fishing, destruction of forestlands, and promotion of pollution. To cope with the adverse impacts of these environmental issues, there are serious financial and policy issues to be faced. As climate change is the global phenomenon, it affects all societies on our planet.

Global warming is the result of agricultural and industrial activities practised globally (Alharby and Fahad 2020; Fahad et al. 2014a,b, 2015a,b, 2016a,b,c,d, 2017, 2018, 2019a,b). So, the consequences are also global and all parts across the globe are predicted to experience changes resulting from global warming. One of the major attributes of these climatic variations is the adverse impact of climate change unevenly distributed worldwide. Many developing countries that don’t contribute proportionally to the global greenhouse gas emissions such as Bangladesh will also sustain the critical issues resulting in floods from rising sea levels. Global warming can significantly cause the economic and social disruption worldwide. But the major issue is that these adverse effects of global warming will mainly affect the poor/underdeveloped countries, though the developed countries in temperate zones will experience less severe or moderate negative impacts of climate changes. Over the past decade, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has conducted several research, studies which showed that there has been an increase of about 0.6°C in average annual global temperatures since the industrial revolution took place. This elevated temperature is the result of enhanced concentrations of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. These results of IPCC have been confirmed by Brohan et al. (2006), who reported the 20th century as the warmest century. During the past 11 years, 1990s has been declared as the warmest decade of millennium. In future, the global average temperature variations are expected to be increased from 1.4°C to 5.8°C (McCarthy et al. 2001). Considering the overall rise in average global temperatures, IPCC research predicts that large temperature and precipitation variations (either increase or decrease) will have significant direct and indirect impacts on global socio-economic and industrial sectors (water, agriculture, health, forestry, and biodiversity of flora and fauna), which could be positive or negative. However, the current global model simulations have shown that mostly the regional lands would be warmer than the expected global average annual temperatures (Giorgi and Bi 2005). If the issue of greenhouse gas emissions should not be under check, then these emissions could be grown substantially over the next century. Burning of fossil fuels and land use change contributes major share in greenhouse gas emissions (Stocker 2014). The ultimate results of this practice will be considerable average annual temperature rise and variations in rainfall patterns (Change et al. 2007). Although the global climate change puts significant impacts on various sectors, agriculture is the single largest sector facing adverse impacts of climate change (Cline 1996). Having a good understanding of these impacts provides considerable insights to formulate mitigation strategies. This understanding will also help in the adaptations of these climate changes. Various economic studies in the United States have quantified the climate change impacts on agriculture industry. Mathematical programming has been reported an effective approach to check crop switching in response to varying potential crop yields (Adams et al. 1990, 1999).

Global warming has become an emerging issue in the late 20th century as it has shown an increasing trend in the past few decades. As climate change affects various aspects of human life and different socio-economic sectors, it should be a major concern. The impacts of climate change and global warming on the agriculture sector will be more adverse and should be of more concern because agriculture directly affects food security and substantially affects global human populations. Due to the awareness of the impacts of climatic variations on ecosystems, biodiversity, economy, as well as global trade and humanity, make climate change and global warming attain the topmost priority at governmental, socio-economic, and community levels (Posas 2011). Most of the developing countries including Pakistan are economically based on the agriculture sector. Because the agriculture sector is directly exposed to natural phenomenon, so agriculture is the most adversely affected sector by changing climatic conditions compared to other sectors. Therefore, developing countries are more affected by climate changes as these are more vulnerable to climate variabilities than developed countries (Ali et al. 2019).

Pakistan’s economy is highly dependent on the agriculture sector, which accounts for 25% share in total GDP of the country and provides employment to more than two-fifths of total rural labour force. Pakistan is located in a semiarid to arid region where rainfall is very low. In Pakistan, the major irrigation source for crop production is Indus River Irrigation System (IRS), which contributes about 90% of the irrigation requirements of the agriculture sector. According to IPCC fourth Assessment Report, by the end of this century, the global temperature would increase by 1°C to 6°C. This prediction of IPCC is especially relevant to Pakistan, as Indus River System (IRS) mainly relies on the Himalayan glaciers, which are supposed to melt in coming 50 years due to hot dry summers prior to monsoon season. And substantially in the near future, the Himalayan glaciers might disappear. Moreover, these climate changes also have negative impacts on precipitation patterns, leading to more intense and irregular patterns of rainfall resulting in heavy floods and drought periods in Pakistan. About 2.6 million acres of cultivated land have been lost in the recent floods and a decline of 6%–9% in the potential wheat yields has also been observed as well. The industrial sector of Pakistan heavily relies on the agricultural sector so the adverse climate change effects and impacts on agriculture directly affect the industrial sector and ultimately the economic sector suffers.

As the Gulf region is right next to Pakistan the climate changes that have adverse effects on Pakistan have direct impacts on Gulf countries as well. Recent research has concluded that in the coming 20–30 years, the atmospheric concentrations of...