PART I
Critical Practices
1
âDismissed, trivialized, misreadâ:
Re-examining the Reception of Womenâs Literature through the #MeToo Movement
Janet Badia
While the media continues to frame the hashtag âMeTooâ through the now-famous viral moment of October 2017âa moment centered on actress Alyssa Milano, film executive Harvey Weinstein, and Hollywood more broadlyâwe know that the story of the MeToo Movement does not begin there. Rather, the MeToo Movement originated more than a decade before Milanoâs viral tweet when, in 2006, Tarana Burke, founder and director of the Just Be Inc. youth organization, developed the MeToo campaign on MySpace to help sexual assault survivors in underserved communities find resources and heal from their traumas (Ohlheiser 2017). On the website for Just Be Inc., Burke locates the roots of the campaign in one particular moment she experienced leading an all-girl bonding session at a youth camp (Burke 2013). The day following the session one of the girls, Heavenâwho had âclung toâ Burke throughout the camp and who had about her âa deep sadness and a yearning for confessionââasked to speak with her privately. Burkeâs description of her reaction to Heavenâs revelation of sexual abuse is as honest as it is surprising:
I was horrified by her words, the emotions welling inside of me ran the gamut, and I listened until I literally could not take it anymore ⊠which turned out to be less than 5 minutes. Then, right in the middle of her sharing her pain with me, I cut her off and immediately directed her to another female counselor who could âhelp her better.â
I will never forget the look on her face âŠ. The shock of being rejected, the pain of opening a wound only to have it abruptly forced closed again âŠ. I could not find the courage that she had found. I could not muster the energy to tell her that I understood, that I connected, that I could feel her pain âŠ. I could not find the strength to say out loud the words that were ringing in my head over and over again as she tried to tell me what she had endured ⊠I watched her walk away from me as she tried to recapture her secrets and tuck them back into their hiding place. I watched her put her mask back on and go back into the world like she was all alone and I couldnât even bring myself to whisper ⊠me too.
I quote this context at length here, first, to underscore Burkeâs voice and place in the MeToo movement and, second, to tease out the complexities of this particular origin story. Burkeâs retelling of this crucial moment in the formation of the movement is, importantly, about both the invitation to witness and the inability to listen; itâs about the sharing of pain and the retreat from what that sharing requires of its listeners; itâs about the discovery of oneâs voice and about the repression of connection, of empathy, and of solidarity with that voice. In many ways, it is an unexpected origin story for a movement that is, above all, about connection and identification: me, too.
In fall 2018, I had the opportunity to hear Tarana Burke speak at Purdue University West Lafayette. Structured as a dialogue between Burke and an interviewer, the conversation on this occasion revealed yet another facet of the movementâs origin story, one defined not by Burkeâs inability to whisper the words âme tooâ but by a suddenly materialized consciousness that Burke arrives at through her early experiences as a young reader. On the stage that day, Burke explained that her own MeToo moment of connection came when, as a young girl, she read the novel The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison and the memoir I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou, two literary texts that place stories of childhood sexual abuse at their centers and that revolutionized literary culture when they were first published (Burke 2018a). As a scholar whose work has largely focused on women readers and the stories that are central to their reading experiences, I could not have scripted a better origin story myself. It highlights not only the âpower of literature,â as the two discussed that night on stage, but also the question of whose literature matters and deserves to be read.
Indeed, Tarana Burkeâs description of her own reading of Morrison and Angelou as a girl invites us to revisit the ways womenâs writing in general but especially womenâs writing about sexual assault and abuse has been understood or, as is often the case, misunderstood and devalued. In this essay, I explore this question of the politics of literary reception, focusing on how two womenâs literary stories of sexual assault from the late 1960s and early 1970s have been banned, marginalized, misread, and suppressed. In particular, I will examine the reception of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and The Bluest Eye in order to consider the politics of literary canons and curricular decisions (as evidenced in efforts to ban such books) and the relationship between institutions and systems of power and privilege. The #MeToo movement has disrupted more than just male privilege; it has disrupted syllabi and class discussions, and, as I hope to show in this essay, it has the potential to disrupt literary history, suggesting new ways to map out the constellation of issues that emerge from an examination of womenâs stories of sexual abuse and literary canons of male dominance.
It is perfectly fitting of course that Burke would single out I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and The Bluest Eye in a conversation about #MeToo. Published just months apart in late 1969 and early 1970, each centers on the lives of Black girls coming of age in the middle decades of the twentieth century; both would eventually establish their authors as major new voices in a literary landscape undergoing significant upheavals in gender and racial politics; and both have vexing reception histories. In A New Literary History of America, Cheryl Wall provides important context for thinking about the significance of these two publications in the early 1970s, a period defined not only by the production of new texts by Black women writers but also by the recovery and republication of forgotten or subjugated texts from prior literary periods, by authors including Nella Larsen and Zora Neale Hurston. For Wall, the 1950s and 1960s were defined by the works of Richard Wright, James Baldwin, and Amiri Baraka, who produced a body of literature in which âfemale characters watched the action from the sidelines. Good women offered succor and encouragement, while bad ones got in the way.â But in the 1970s, âBlack women changed the script ⊠Their plots, characters, and prose introduced something new to American literature,â explains Wall. âTheir protagonists were often females, who faced choices every bit as challenging as their male precursors, though their dilemmas were often more private than publicâ (Wall 2009: 968).
Bucking the tradition of autobiography as a genre about the lives of great men, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is certainly an example of one such game-changer. The autobiography opens with Angelouâs early memories as a child living with her paternal grandmother in Stamps, Arkansas, and ends with the birth of her son when Maya, now relocated to California, is just sixteen. While the autobiography has been largely hailed as a work about personal perseverance, itâs perhaps best known for the handful of pages that retell the trauma of eight-year-old Mayaâs sexual abuse and eventual rape by her motherâs boyfriend, Mr. Freeman. Itâs an act of violence the young Maya is not equipped to understand but that propels her life forward, nonetheless. As if the trauma of the rape werenât brutalizing enough, Maya is also coerced into silence, as Mr. Freeman threatens to kill her beloved brother Bailey should she whisper a word to anyone about the abuse (Angelou 2015: 77). While Maya fully intends to heed Mr. Freemanâs injunction against telling, her brother Bailey discovers evidence of the assault, and Mr. Freeman is tried in court and sentenced to one year and one day for the crime, but for reasons never made explicit in the text, he is âreleased that very afternoonâ (2015: 84). Shortly thereafter, Maya learns that Mr. Freeman is found murdered, likely the victim of a beating delivered by her uncles; Mayaâs grandmother issues her own injunction when she realizes that the children had overheard the news of Mr. Freemanâs death, telling them: âyou didnât hear a thing. I never want to hear this situation nor that evil manâs name mentioned in my house againâ (2015: 85). Convinced that âevilness [was] flowing through my body and waiting, pent up, to rush off my tongue if I tried to open my mouthâ (85), Maya mutes herself to everyone but her brother Bailey. When her muteness is mistaken for impudence and sullenness, she is sent (once again) to live with her fatherâs mother in Stamps, Arkansas, where no one appears to acknowledge or even know of the violent assault, and where her silence is understood simply as a sign of how âtender-heartedâ she is (91).
As Wall points out, âRelatively few autobiographies by black women had been published before Angelou wrote hers. None had delved as deeply into the writerâs intimate life. In the process, the book helped break a long-standing public silence around the issue of sexual violenceâ (970). At times, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings reads as if its author is fully aware of the mutinous nature of the narrative she unfolds, not only in terms of its treatment of taboo topics but also in its demonstration of the power of all kinds of literature in shaping consciousness. Indeed, it is literature, loaned to her by Mrs. Flowers, an acquaintance of her grandmother who invites Maya to her house and who encourages her to memorize and recite poems, that leads young Maya out of her silence (99). Although her time with Mrs. Flowers isnât Mayaâs first important experience with books, it remains a defining one and, one could argue, it initiates what one scholar has called Mayaâs âpsychic reintegrationâ after the trauma of rape (Henke 2005: 28). Reading and the connections Maya forms with Mrs. Flowers through literature are central not only to the restoration of her voice and story but also to her recovery and her empowerment.
An obituary for Angelou that appeared in the Guardian in 2014 described the author as âone of the most admired and most banned authors in US literary historyâ (qtd. in Kich 2016: 80). To measure admiration, one need only point to the memoirâs sales. Not only did the autobiography remain on the New York Times bestseller list for two years following its initial publication, but it has seen significant spikes in sales since then as well, including in the 1990s following Angelouâs reading of her poem, âOn the Pulse of Morning,â at Bill Clintonâs first inauguration. Reports collected by the American Library Association beginning in 1990 substantiate the second half of the Guardianâs claim, showing that I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was âthe third most frequently challenged book of the previous twenty-five yearsâ (2016: 80). Parents, school boards, politicians, and organizations with names such as âParents Against Bad Books in Schoolâ have attempted to ban Angelouâs autobiography. Martin Kich highlights a 2004 example in which parents in Niles, Indiana, objected to the âgraphic depiction of Angelouâs molestation as a child and other topics such as lesbianism and sexual activity of youthsâ (qtd. in Kich 2016: 83). This example is representative of challenges in other states, including Wisconsin, California, and Alabama, where the school superintendent reportedly argued that Angelouâs âdescriptions of being raped as a little girl are pornographicâ (qtd. in Kich 2016: 82).
Interestingly, 2007 marked the last year I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings would crack the top ten list of the most challenged books (2016: 80). Kich appears to believe that this decrease in controversy illustrates the memoirâs longevity and trajectory toward acceptance into the canon (2016: 80). But that conclusion seems less likely in light of the fact that over the past ten years, Toni Morrisonâs The Bluest Eye has become the target of the kinds of challenges that used to plague Angelouâs memoir. In 2006, The Bluest Eye emerged as the new I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, according to data collected by the American Library Association (âTop 10 Most Challenged Books Listsâ 2013). Indeed, since 2013, Morrisonâs novel has been the second-most challenged book after Sherman Alexieâs The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian. Given that these challenges tend to come from parents and conservative groups objecting to books included in school curricula and school libraries, this information suggests that The Bluest Eye replaced I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings on the list because it also replaced it within curricula. Tellingly, in at least one case of complaining parents, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings had just been added to the tenth-grade English curriculum to address complaints from the previous year that the curriculum lacked books by women and minority writers (Good 2002: 35). Apparently, there is room for a narrative about Black girls, provided, of course, that the content conforms to a single standard.
That The Bluest Eye has become central to debates about what stories are appropriate for and of value to teenagers is dismaying, if not surprising, given its obvious ability to impact young readers in positive ways about painful topics, as evidenced by Tarana Burkeâs own experience. That the novel has repeatedly faced questions about its potential to harm some audiences is also ironic, given that the issue of conventional childrenâs stories and their potential for doing harm lies at the center of the novel. Built into the novelâs very frameworkâindeed titleâis Morrisonâs commentary on the harm white culture and white media do to Black girls as they come of age. Morrison makes this critique through retellings of the classic âSee Dick and Jane runâ stories from the readers that were used to teach children to read throughout the mid-twentieth century, while the title evokes white standards of beautyâfrom Shirley Temple films to blond, blue-eyed baby dollsâthat surround the three Black girls at the heart of the story. These dominant cultural standards breed an internalized and intergenerational racial self-loathing that, in turn, leads a drunk Cholly Breedlove to rape his eleven-year-old daughter, Pecola.
Aware of the taboo she was breaking by telling Pecolaâs story, Morrison opens the novel with the phrase, âquiet as itâs kept,â which she explains in the afterword âhad several attractions for [her]â: âThe words are conspiratorial. âShh, donât tell anyone else,â and âNo one is allowed to know this.â It is a secret between us, and a secret that is being kept from us. The conspiracy is both held and withheld, exposed and sustained âŠ. Thus, the opening (âquiet as itâs keptâ) provides the stroke that announces something more than a secret shared, but a silence broken, a void filled, an unspeakable thing spoken at lastâ (1994: 211â12). Whether the novel had an audience ready to encounter such an openly transgressive story is another question. Reception of the novel throughout the 1970s and 1980s was mixed. Mostly the subject of brief book notes and short reviews, The Bluest Eye did not sell copies the way I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings had. Morrison herself appeared to be disappointed in her first novelâs reception. âWith very few exceptions,â she writes in 1993, âinitial publication of The Bluest Eye was like Pecolaâs life: dismissed, trivialized, misreadâ (1994: 216). One wonders whether, when writing those words, Morrison had in mind a 1970 review of the novel that argued that her depiction of âthe imaginary conversation of the now-maddened and schizoid child, delivered of a dead baby at 12, weakens the structure and adds little to the storyâ (Marvin 1970: 3806).
As Morrisonâs reputation as a writer grew with the publication of the novels that followed her debut, some reviewers returned to The Bluest Eye to give context to her latest publication. In a 1988 âBooks of the Yearâ fe...