Hinduism

Dr. B. R. Kishore

• Publisher: Diamond Books
• Year: 2020
• ISBN:
  9789385975417
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Hinduism

The roots of Hinduism reach deep into pre-historic hoary past. It has evolved over these millennia, and still this process continues. Dynamism, tolerance, cattholicity, assimilation, inclusiveness, optimism and unity in diversity have always been its hallmarks. Its multiplicity is more apparent than real. In the ultimate analysis, Hinduism proves to be a great synthesis of many diverse and even conflicting and contradictory trends and elemaits. Thus, its multiplicity and ambivalence are not only incompatible with the concept of essential unity of life and its creator, but also mark its strength. The Vedas and Vedanta form the earliest source of our knowledge of Hinduism. The Vedanta literature reflects mainly the early ritual-side of the Hindu way of living. So do the Puranas, as they throw significant light on the various mundane aspects of later Hinduism. The two Epics and the Gita also delineate the basis tenets of Hinduism, and underline the desirability of dharma and righteous living leading to ultimate triumph of the forces of good over evil.

CHAPTER ONE

Hinduism : History and Heritage

‘Hinduism’ is a modern term, but it represents the ancient most living religion and culture of the world. In ancient times Hinduism was called ‘Brahmanism’ or ‘Vedantism’. It is also called the ‘Sanatana Dharma’. ‘Sanatana’ means eternal and everlasting, and ‘Dharma’ means something which upholds or maintains. Thus ‘Sanatana Dharma’ stands for the law which upholds and maintains life and order. It also underline the fact that Hinduism has neither a beginning nor an end. It is eternal and everlasting and its beginning cannot be fixed in terms of time and its originator Like Christianity and Islam, Hinduism does not owe its origin to one prophet or a religious book. It has evolved through these epochs and ages and still continues to grow. (There is no single human agency or personality at the root of Hinduism. Hinduism is the religion of the majority in India, and over 80% of the Indian population are the Hindus. It is eternal and everlasting in this sense also that it has escaped the fate that overtook the religion of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Babylonia of ancient times.

‘Hindu’, ‘Hinduism’ and such other related words are Persian in origin, and are derived from the word ‘Sindhu’, the river. ‘Sindhu’ became ‘Hindu’ in Persian, and then the people living in the region of the Sindhu river were called the Hindus and their religion Hinduism. The terms ‘Hindu’ and ‘Hinduism’ were later extended to the people of the whole sub-continent and their way of living and thinking. In the beginning the extent of the people and their civilization were actually far more widespread than the expanse indicated by such words as Hindu and Hinduism. In Greek Sindhu became ‘Indus’, and from it were derived India and Indian. Thus ‘Indian’ is an anglicised word meaning the ‘land of Indus’ Hindu now cannotes the whole spread of religious, cultural and philosophical way of thinking and living of the entire sub-continent.

The word ‘Hinduism’ is geographical in origin, and geography has played a very vital role in the growth and formulation of the thinking and practices of the Hindus. Obviously, Hinduism is a product of the interplay of the forces of Indian geography and ancient Indian genius. India’s geographical features have considerable influenced, both directly and indirectly, her religion and way of living. India is a vast country, a sub-continent with her fantastic and formidable an arc of the Himalayas in the extreme north, and the vast sea round her southern peninsular plateau. India’s great latitudinal spread, encompassing a wide range of climates and temperatures, made it rich for the advent and development of a great and multi-dimensional religion such as Hinduism and its off-shoots like Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.

The vast plains of the Sindhu and the Ganga, one of greatest stretches of the flat alluvial areas of our planet, were the cradle-ground of early Hindu religion and culture. The great size, the splendid isolation, the protection provided by the mighty Himalayas and the seas, the rich and fertile alluvial soil, abundant rain and the generous bounty of nature made India a fit ground for intellectual pursuit, philosophical speculations and abstract thinking. It is India’s characteristic geographical features, which have imbued the Indian wisdom with great maturity and matchless mellowness. In spite of numerous geographical regions, different climates, etc., India has been culturally and religiously one and unified. Hinduism, as a religion and cultural force, has been a great unifying single force in India. Amidst diversity of rituals and customs, there can be seen a certain uniformity and similarity at higher religious and intellectual levels. It were India’s mountains, rivers, forests and sea-shores that exercised an abiding influence on Hindu speculation and way of life. For a Hindu they all have a deep divinity about them, and so they are worshipped and deified. The Himalayas have been the abode of the Hindu gods and goddesses. It is on the banks and confluences of the rivers that many Hindu pilgrimage centres are located. It was in the sylvan forests that the Hindu tapovans, retreats, hermitages and gurukulas were situated, where the aspirants, rishis and students practised austerities, tapas and learning. It was her in the forest retreats that Upanishads were born and developed.

It is the religious thinking and affinity, coupled with moral values and abstract thinking, which cuts across all geographical and political barriers. In spite of diverse ritual practices, attitudes and thinking, a single ideology prevails at a deeper level. It is again the bounty of nature that helped considerably in making the Hindus so tolerant, catholic, non-violent and generally vegetarian. They developed a sense of affection, bordering veneration to the cow in particular and other animals and birds in general. Consequently many birds and animals came to be associated with Hindu deities, and they, became their vehicles and mounts.

Nature had destined India to develop her religion in a splendid isolation and yet there is no other land that has had such a rich and varied intercourse with so different peoples, religions, cultures and thinking. Geographically isolated, but historically it has been a great meeting point of various cultures and civilizations all these centuries. India and its religion(s), have outlived the test of time and invasions. Empires have risen and fallen, kings have come and gone like bubbles, but India with her vibrant culture and Sanatana Dharma continues to march forward triumphantly. Diversity and assimilation have always been the hall-mark of this eternal land. Many races and conquerors came, but they all lost their individualities in this marvel of the Indian melting pot.

Hinduism represents a succession of rich cultural epochs. Since its beginning in dim and hoary pre-historical past, its flow has been steadily maintained with interruption. It is very comprehensive and inclusive religion, but its diversity is not incompatible with its underlying essential unity. It represents a formidable synthesis of numerous elements, all fused together into a great organic whole. Hinduism, in fact, is a rainbow coloured fabric and a symphonious way of life. This immense synthesis and symphony has been the result of ceaseless efforts of Indian wisdom since days dating back to five-six millennia. It is a composite religion, a veritable ocean to which many rivers and streams of religions, races and cultures have meaningfully contributed in their own way. The diversity of its creeds, dogmas, rituals, images and idols is simply external and instrumental. Its many facetedness does not mean that Hinduism is an amalgam of diverse religions, faiths and attitudes. The spiritual growth and evolution involves many stages from the lower forms of worship to the higher ones, and hence it allows the soul to evolve in full freedom according to its capacity andinclination. It does not believe in uniformity, regimentation or conversion for they would defeat the very purpose of the religion.

The Hindus are the lineal descendants of the famous ancient Aryan race. In the beginning the Aryans were confined to the Sapta-sindhu region between the rivers Sindhu or Indus and the Sarasvati, now lost. This region was then called ‘Brahmavarta’ or ‘Aryavarta’. Gradually the Aryans spread out to the Gangetic plain and the regions further east and south of the country. By the time Aryanization and Aryan settlement in the south were almost complete, the country came to be known as ‘Bharata’ or ‘Bharatavarsha’, after the great Bharatas, whose descendants fought a terrible battle among themselves known as Mahabharata. Even today the country is called by its traditional name ‘Bharata’.

The Aryans came from out of India, and with that began a new epoch and a transition from the Mohen-jo-daro, Harappan urban civilization to a predominently rural and pastoral way of living and speculation. The Aryans were possessed of refined poetic sensibilities and were far more advanced in the use of metals, economy, industry and means of transportation. They were vigorous and a fighting race, and had no difficulty in assimilating partly the Indus-Valley civilization and religion.

The fact that Indus Valley civilization and religion are closely related to Hinduism have been amply borne out by the terracotta figurines, seals etc., found there in the excavations. The practice of penance, yoga, worship of Shiva or Pashupati and Mother Goddess as deities of fertility were part and parcel of Harappan religion. They were later incorporated into Hinduism. The iconic and phallic worship, pre-eminence of Mother Goddess Durga or Kali, ascetic and yogic practices of Hinduism can be directly traced to Harappan religion, which was essentially pre-Vedic and non-Aryan. The Aryans were definitely more vigorous and a fighting race. They possessed fine horses, chariots, and arrows of iron. They were superior to the Harappan people, but religiously and culturally the Harappans were better placed than the Aryans. And so the Aryans incorporated into their religion a lot of already existing Indian religion and culture. Therefore, Aryan religion and culture did not in any way imply the regression in the scale of progression but rather it marked an advancement, synthesis and assimilation of already existing cult into the exuburant and ever-growing Hinduism. The discovery of the Indus Valley civilization has pushed the history of Indian religions and culture as far back as 3500 B.C. Thus in Harappan religion can be seen the ancestor of Hinduism. How did this wonderful religion and culture came to an end? Perhaps the successive waves of the Aryan invasion caused it, but the invaders wisely imbibed and assimilated many religious elements of the conquered. The recurrent images of Proto-Shiva with exposed phallus, the Bull and statutes of nude female, with a plant issuing forth from the womb, do anticipate many predominant features of the early Brahmanism and later Hinduism.

The earliest source of our knowledge of Hinduism are Vedas and the Upanishads. These are the ancient most monuments of Hindu culture and religion. They form the rock foundations of the magnificent edifice of Hinduism, and also of its off-shoots and extensions like Buddhism and Jainism. The Vedas are a whole body of literature and their parts represent successive stages in the evolution of Hinduism. The exact time of their composition is difficult to trace out. The earlier limit of the Vedas is placed somewhere between 2000 and 2500 B.C. The Vedic literature was handed down orally from one generation to another till it was written down sometime one millennium B.C. the Rigveda is the oldest of the Vedas. The three more Vedas were composed during the later Vedic period. These are Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas. All these great and ancient religious books of the Hindus consist of three parts, that is, Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas. Samhitas are the collection of sacred hymns in verse and belong to the earliest stage. They are addressed to various male and female deities. The Brahmana portions are mostly in prose and describe in detail the rites and rituals. The Aranyakas (forests treatises are in a sense supplements and continuation of the Brahmanas. These three parts form the Vedas proper. The Upanishads or the Vedant, which mark the culmination of the abstract speculation and contain the richest philosophical and religious teachings, are mostly parts of the Aranyakas or the Forest Treatises. Many Aranyakas are now lost, and only the Upanishadic portions of these profoundly philosophical books have escaped the erosion and ravages of time. There are many Upanishads, but the principal ones are sixteen or so in number. This whole literature contains deep spiritual truths and philosophy. The central teaching of the Upanishads underline the identity of the Supreme Soul and the individual Soul. “Tatt-twam-asi” (That thou art!) can be said the quintessence of Vedant and Hinduism. That stands for Brahman, the Supreme and Universal Soul or the Cosmic Purusha.

Then comes Vedangas or Sutra literature consisting of such works as Kalpasutras, the Grihyasutras and the Srautasutras. This literature deals with supplementary sciences or the lower knowledge. These books describe in detail the rules of ceremonies, sacrifices and such rites as belong to conception, birth, wedding, funeral, initiation and other customs, usages and rituals of Hindu domestic life. This literature is important for the interpretation of the Vedas as it contains the rules regarding the use of various mantras, hymns, prayers and incantations.

The Vedic literature is isoteric and contains spiritual truths, not fully expressed but implicitly revealed, the Sutra literature and Puranas are essentially exoteric and deal with external social and domestic conduct and rituals. So are two national epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana is the epic poem composed by the sage and Adi Kavi Valmiki. It deals with the adventures and exploits of hero Rama. Rama, the incarnation of Vishnu, upholds Dharma and Maintains righteousness by his most noble deeds and exemplary actions. Rama, the embodiment of Hindu excellence is held in the highest honour and the worship paid to him, his consort Sita and devotee monkey-god Hanuman, the epitome of selfless service, devotion, faithfulness, obedience and manly strength, is of the purest nature. Another great Hindu epic, the Mahabharata’s authorship is attributed to Krishna Dwaipayana or Vyasa. It relates the great war fought among the Bharatas, and is the longest epic poem in the world. The Kauravas and the Pandavas, the descendants of the Bharatas through Puru of the Lunar dynasty, fought a terrible war for the kingdom of Hastinapur. The most important part of the Mahabharata is the portion in which Krishna the manifestation of the highest divinity, expounds to Arjuna the most profound truth of Vedanta and Yoga in the form of a dialogue called the Bhagavad Gita. The Gita or the Song Celestial is one of the greatest philosophical works which has exercised a powerful influence on the Hindus for the last many centuries. The Mahabharata is later than the Ramayana, but it is not possible to give the dates of composition of these two great epics, though the question of exact chronology has troubled the minds of the scholars for long.

The Puranas are the later sacred literature of the Hindus. The principal Puranas are 18, but it is difficult to give their exact chronology or their date of composition. Many of them certainly existed before the coming of Gautam Buddha, but some of them are of the later period. They are rooted in the Vedas and represent a later and more elaborate development of Hinduism. The Puranas deal with powers and deeds of the gods, heroes, saints and ancestors of the human race. Didactic in spirit, they are dedicated to some god or the other and his cult. They were chiefly meant for the common people, who had no access to, and understanding to the abstract speculations of the Vedas and the Vedanta. Thus, the Puranas as sacred scriptures can be considered as the books of second grade. The Puranas are valuable in the sense that they throw a great deal of light on various aspects of Hinduism. The Puranas served the purpose of educating the masses and the unlettered Hindus through their tales, legends, mythology, rituals, theism and pantheism. The Puranas are in verse and their form is always that of a dialogue between an exponent and an enquirer or aspirant, interspersed with the comments and observations of other people. Of the Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana is the most popular among the Hindus. It is called Bhagvata because it is dedicated to Bhagvata or Vishnu. In its tenth book is related in detail the life of Krishna, the manifestation of Vishnu. The Puranas as scriptures are the great authorities of Hinduism and have considerable influence on Hindu thinking and religious practices. The two great epics, mentioned earlier, also partake of the character of the Puranas. The Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana are still read and recited with great delight and interest during certain months of the year among the Hindus. Puranas are pluralistic and sectarian in their approach, yet they never completely lose sight of the monatheistic conception of God or Reality.

Yoga ‘the science of the soul’, a sure means of spiritual discipline and the realization of the reality, is one of the fundamental of the Hinduism. As one of the Shaddarshanas or the six schools of philosophy, it was founded by rishi Patanjali. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, is well known all over the world. This school emphasizes the practice of meditation as a chief means of final liberation. In a broad sense, yoga is an integral part of all Hindu systems and practices. The need for yogic discipline is also underlined in the Upanishads. Yoga makes the whole being of the aspirant ready to be in direct touch with the cosmic consciousness. Yoga quickens spiritual evolution by making a yogi’s nature refined, disciplined and more rhythmical. As a psychic discipline and training, yoga makes individual’s life richer by revealing the subtler and finer aspects of the individual’s consciousness.

The other schools or systems of Shad-darshanas include the Nyaya philosophy of Gautama, the Vaisheshika school of Kanada, the Sankhya system of the sage Kapila, the Purva Mimansa of Jaimini and the Uttara Mimansa or the Vedanta philosophy. All these systems have the one and the same goal, the final liberation of the soul and its absorption into the Supreme Soul, but the paths are different. The Nyaya system is based on reasoning, analysis and dialectics and therefore, it is also called the Logical School. And Gautama is also called the Aristotle of India. The Hindu syllogism consists of Proposition, Reason, Instance, Application of the Reason, and the Conclusion. This school underlines the necessity of clear and logical thinking as a means of final release and moksha. It is exoteric in its approach and combines both deductive and inductive methods of reasoning, for example:-

1. Whatever has smoke has fire, e.g., the kitchen.
2. This hill is smoky.
3. Smoke is always accompanied by fire.
4. It is the nature of fire to create smoke.
5. Therefore, this hill is fiery (is volcanic).

Thus, the Hindus were the first to invent logic and reasoning. Vaisheshika of Kanada is supplementary to the Nyaya, and these two schools are classed together as the Nyaya-Vaisheshika. Vaisheshika system traces the origin of the universe to eternal atoms, and so it is also called the Atomic School.

The Sankhya and the Yoga systems have much in common, and therefore they are classed together, but the former is atheistical and the latter theistical. It is based on the fundamental duality of Purusha and Prakriti, or the spirit and the matter. Purusha manifests himself through this Prakriti. Prakriti is endowed with the three gunas, the Sattava, the Rajas andtheTamas. The dualism of Purusha and Prakriti, or the soul and matter and the atheism of the Sankhya were modified to suit the later popular Hinduism and its manifestations in montheism and pantheism.

The Purva Mimansa of Jaimini and Uttara Mimansa of Vyasa are classed together. The latter is subdivided into Dvaita, Vishishtadvaita and Advaita schools. “The object of both these schools is to teach the art of reasoning with the express purpose of aiding the interpretation of the Vedas, not only in the speculative but the practical portion”. Purva Mimansa which literally means previous investigation or enquiry, deals with rites, rituals, ceremonies and all that is formal, instrumental and external of Hindu religious practice. The Uttara Mimansa or Vedanta’s principal tenets are that “God is the omniscient and omnipotent cause of the existence, continuance and dissolution of the universe. Creation is an act of his will; he is both the efficient and the material cause of the world God is the sole-existent and universal soul, he is adwaita, with out a second”. The three sub-schools of the Vedanta are three successive steps of the same philosophy. They all underline the existence of Brahman as the basis of all manifestations, which is absolute existence (Sat), intelligence or consciousness (Chit) and bliss (Ananda). Vedanta is the most important of the six systems and forms the hub of modern Hinduism. The Brahma Sutras is the principal text of this school of philosophy. Adi Shankracharya was the great exponent of this school.

The six Vadangas or the Limbs of the Vedas deal with subsidiary sciences. They consists of (i) Kalpa or religious performances, (ii) Siksha or the science of phonetics and pronunciation, (iii) Chhandas or metre and prosedy, (iv) Nirukta or etymology, (v) Vyakarna or grammar, and (vi) Jyotish or astronomy and astrology. The Upa-Vedas dealt with Ayurveda or medical science, Dhamurveda or the military science, Gandharvaveda or the science of music and Arthashastra or the science of wealth and polity.

The all-pervasive and inclusive Hinduism developed and continues to grow within this broad speculative religious framework. Hinduism is not only the oldest living religion, but it is also one of the noblest way and view of life. It has faced many challenges and still there are many at present. But it has taken all such challenges into its strides as an ever evolving and dynamic religion. It has changed in response to demands of the changing times without ever violating the fundamental principles and their continuity. In modem times Hinduism found its fullest expression in the life and works of such great men as Rama, Krishna, Paramhansa, Vivekanand, Dayanand Saraswati and Mahatma Gandhi!. Gandhi was a devout and true Hindu. Underlining its strength and also its weak points, he once said, “I can no more describe my feeling for hinduisni than for my wife. She moves me as no other woman in the world can. Not that she has no faults; I dare say she has many more than I see, myself. But the feeling of an indissoluble bond is there. Even so I feel for and about Hinduism with all its faults and limitations…. I am a reformer through and through. But my zeal never takes me the rejection of any of the essential things of Hinduism … Hinduism is not an exclusive religion. In it there is room for the worship of all the prophets of the world. It is not a missionary religion in the ordinary sense of the termHinduism tells everyone to worship God according to his own faith or Dharma, and so it lives at the peace with all the religions”.

Tolerance and assimilation are the hallmarks of Hinduism. The ethnic invasions of the Persians, Greeks. Kushanas, Hunas and others continued unabated for centuries, but ultimately they all lost their individual identities in the melting point of Hinduism and Indian culture and became one with it. The Hindus incorporated so many elements into their culture from these races and ethnic groups, but they so imbibed and assimilated these elements that they became their own. The process of Hinduization has been quite subtle, continuous and long. The impact of the alien influences could create the ripples and wavelets on the upper surface of the Hinduism, but its inner waters always remained calm and yet respective. These wonderous powers of assimilation and absorption have been operating since the dawn of civilization in this subcontinent. Its respectivity and powers of digestion and adaptation strikes one with wonder. In the past it assimilated the various cultural and religious elements and still it continues doing so the western influences. With each new contact, whether it was with the Greeks, Romans, Scythians, Arabs, Persians or the Chnstians, it grew richer in experience and excellence. Every successive reciprocation in speculation and culture enriched Hinduism.

At times Hinduism degenerated into dogmas, superstitions, social and religious evils like casteism, untouchability, child-marriage, infanticide, sati-pratha, and score others, and it was beset...