Leviathan

Thomas Hobbes

• Publisher: Youcanprint
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9788827811139
• Topic: Politics & International Relations
• Subtopic: Politics
• Index: Politics & International Relations

What makes a legitimate government? Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes is a foundational text of western civilization. The book features one of the earliest examples of social contract theory and is essential reading for those who wish to understand government, politics and even business.

PART 1 OF MAN

CHAPTER I. OF SENSE

Concerning the Thoughts of man, I will consider themfirstSingly, and afterwards in Trayne, or dependance upon oneanother. Singly, they are every one a Representation or Apparence,of some quality, or other Accident of a body without us; which iscommonly called an Object. Which Object worketh on the Eyes, Eares,and other parts of mans body; and by diversity of working,produceth diversity of Apparences.

The Originall of them all, is that which we call Sense; (Forthere is no conception in a mans mind, which hath not at first,totally, or by parts, been begottenupon the organs of Sense.) Therest are derived from that originall.

To know the naturall cause of Sense, is not very necessary tothe business now in hand; and I have els-where written of the sameat large. Nevertheless, to fill each part of my present method, Iwill briefly deliver the same in this place.

The cause of Sense, is the Externall Body, or Object, whichpresseth the organ proper to each Sense, either immediatly, as inthe Tast and Touch; or mediately, as in Seeing, Hearing, andSmelling: whichpressure, by the mediation of Nerves, and otherstrings, and membranes of the body, continued inwards to the Brain,and Heart, causeth there a resistance, or counter-pressure, orendeavour of the heart, to deliver it self: which endeavour becauseOutward,seemeth to be some matter without. And this Seeming, orFancy, is that which men call sense; and consisteth, as to the Eye,in a Light, or Colour Figured; To the Eare, in a Sound; To theNostrill, in an Odour; To the Tongue and Palat, in a Savour; andtothe rest of the body, in Heat, Cold, Hardnesse, Softnesse, andsuch other qualities, as we discern by Feeling. All which qualitiescalled Sensible, are in the object that causeth them, but so manyseveral motions of the matter, by which it presseth our organsdiversly. Neither in us that are pressed, are they anything els,but divers motions; (for motion, produceth nothing but motion.) Buttheir apparence to us is Fancy, the same waking, that dreaming. Andas pressing, rubbing, or striking the Eye, makes usfancy a light;and pressing the Eare, produceth a dinne; so do the bodies also wesee, or hear, produce the same by their strong, though unobservedaction, For if those Colours, and Sounds, were in the Bodies, orObjects that cause them, they could not bee severed from them, asby glasses, and in Ecchoes by reflection, wee see they are; wherewe know the thing we see, is in one place; the apparence, inanother. And though at some certain distance, the reall, and veryobject seem invested with the fancy itbegets in us; Yet still theobject is one thing, the image or fancy is another. So that Sensein all cases, is nothing els but originall fancy, caused (as I havesaid) by the pressure, that is, by the motion, of externall thingsupon our Eyes, Eares, and other organs thereunto ordained.

But the Philosophy-schooles, through all the Universities ofChristendome, grounded upon certain Texts of Aristotle, teachanother doctrine; and say, For the cause of Vision, that the thingseen, sendeth forth on every sidea Visible Species(in English) aVisible Shew, Apparition, or Aspect, or a Being Seen; the receivingwhereof into the Eye, is Seeing. And for the cause of Hearing, thatthe thing heard, sendeth forth an Audible Species, that is, anAudible Aspect, or Audible Being Seen; which entring at the Eare,maketh Hearing. Nay forthe cause of Understanding also, they saythe thing Understood sendeth forth Intelligible Species, that is,an Intelligible Being Seen; which comming into the Understanding,makes us Understand. I say not this, as disapproving the use ofUniversities: but because I am to speak hereafter of their officein a Common-wealth, I must let you see on all occasions by the way,what things would be amended in them; amongst which the frequencyof insignificant Speech is one.

CHAPTER II. OF IMAGINATION

That when a thing lies still, unlesse somewhat els stirre it, itwill lye still for ever, is a truth that no man doubts of. But thatwhen a thing is in motion, it will eternally be in motion,unlesssomewhat els stay it, though the reason be the same, (namely, thatnothing can change it selfe,) is not so easily assented to. For menmeasure, not onely other men, but all other things, by themselves:and because they find themselves subject aftermotion to pain, andlassitude, think every thing els growes weary of motion, and seeksrepose of its own accord; little considering, whether it be notsome other motion, wherein that desire of rest they find inthemselves, consisteth. From hence it is, that the Schooles say,Heavy bodies fall downwards, out of an appetite to rest, and toconserve their nature in that place which is most proper for them;ascribing appetite, and Knowledge of what is good for theirconservation, (which is more than man has) tothings inanimateabsurdly.

When a Body is once in motion, it moveth (unless something elshinder it) eternally; and whatsoever hindreth it, cannot in aninstant, but in time, and by degrees quite extinguish it: And aswee see in the water, though the windcease, the waves give not overrowling for a long time after; so also it happeneth in that motion,which is made in the internall parts of a man, then, when he Sees,Dreams, &c. For after the object is removed, or the eye shut,wee still retain an image of the thing seen, though more obscurethan when we see it. And this is it, that Latines call Imagination,from the image made in seeing; and apply the same, thoughimproperly, to all the other senses. But the Greeks call it Fancy;which signifies Apparence, and is as proper to one sense, as toanother. Imagination therefore is nothing but Decaying Sense; andis found in men, and many other living Creatures, as well sleeping,as waking.

Memory

The decay of Sense in men waking, is not the decay of themotionmade in sense; but an obscuring of it, in such manner, as the lightof the Sun obscureth the light of the Starres; which starrs do noless exercise their vertue by which they are visible, in the day,than in the night. But because amongst many stroaks, which oureyes, eares, and other organs receive from externall bodies, thepredominant onely is sensible; therefore the light of the Sun beingpredominant, we are not affected with the action of the starrs. Andany object being removed from our eyes,though the impression itmade in us remain; yet other objects more present succeeding, andworking on us, the Imagination of the past is obscured, and madeweak; as the voyce of a man is in the noyse of the day. From whenceit followeth, that the longer the time is, after the sight, orSense of any object, the weaker is the Imagination. For thecontinuall change of mans body, destroyes in time the parts whichin sense were moved: So that the distance of time, and of place,hath one and the same effect in us. For as at a distance of place,that which wee look at, appears dimme, and without distinction ofthe smaller parts; and as Voyces grow weak, and inarticulate: soalso after great distance of time, our imagination of the Past isweak; and wee lose( for example) of Cities wee have seen, manyparticular Streets; and of Actions, many particular Circumstances.This Decaying Sense, when wee would express the thing it self, (Imean Fancy it selfe,) wee call Imagination, as I said before; Butwhen we would express the Decay, and signifie that the Sense isfading, old, and past, it is called Memory. So that Imagination andMemory, are but one thing, which for divers considerations hathdivers names.

Much memory, or memory of many things, is called Experience.Againe, Imagination being only of those things which have beenformerly perceived by Sense, either all at once, or by parts atseverall times; The former, (which is the imagining the wholeobject, as it was presented to the sense) is Simple Imagination; aswhenone imagineth a man, or horse, which he hath seen before. Theother is Compounded; as when from the sight of a man at one time,and of a horse at another, we conceive in our mind a Centaure. Sowhen a man compoundeth the image of his own person, with theimageof the actions of an other man; as when a man imagins himselfe aHercules, or an Alexander, (which happeneth often to them that aremuch taken with reading of Romants) it is a compound imagination,and properly but a Fiction of the mind. There be also otherImaginations that rise in men, (though waking) from the greatimpression made in sense; As from gazing upon the Sun, theimpression leaves an image of the Sun before our eyes a long timeafter; and from being long and vehemently attent upon GeometricallFigures, a man shall in the dark, (though awake) have the Images ofLines, and Angles before his eyes: which kind of Fancy hath noparticular name; as being a thing that doth not commonly fall intomens discourse.

Dreams

The imaginations of them that sleep, are those we call Dreams.And these also (as all other Imaginations) have been before, eithertotally, or by parcells in the Sense. And because in sense, theBrain, and Nerves, which are the necessary Organs of sense, are sobenummed in sleep, as not easily to be moved by the action ofExternall Objects, there can happen in sleep, no Imagination; andtherefore no Dreame, but what proceeds from the agitation of theinward parts of mans body; which inward parts, for the connexionthey have with the Brayn, and other Organs, when they bedistempered, do keep the same in motion; whereby the Imaginationsthere formerly made, appeare as if a man were waking; saving thatthe Organs of Sense being now benummed, so as there is no newobject, which canmaster and obscure them with a more vigorousimpression, a Dreame must needs be more cleare, in this silence ofsense, than are our waking thoughts. And hence it cometh to pass,that it is a hard matter, and by many thought impossible todistinguish exactly between Sense and Dreaming. For my part, when Iconsider, that in Dreames, I do not often, nor constantly think ofthe same Persons, Places, Objects, and Actions that I do waking;nor remember so long a trayne of coherent thoughts, Dreaming, as atothertimes; And because waking I often observe the absurdity ofDreames, but never dream of the absurdities of my waking Thoughts;I am well satisfied, that being awake, I know I dreame not; thoughwhen I dreame, I think my selfe awake.

And seeing dreames are caused by the distemper of some of theinward parts of the Body; divers distempers must needs causedifferent Dreams. And hence it is, that lying cold breedeth Dreamsof Feare, and raiseth the thought and Image of some fearfull object(the motion from the brain to the inner parts, and from the innerparts to the Brain being reciprocall:) and that as Anger causethheat in some parts of the Body, when we are awake; so when wesleep, the over heating of the same parts causeth Anger, andraiseth up in the brainthe Imagination of an Enemy. In the samemanner; as naturall kindness, when we are awake causeth desire; anddesire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so also, toomuch heat in those parts, while wee sleep, raiseth in the brain animagination of some kindness shewn. In summe, our Dreams are thereverse of our waking Imaginations; The motion when we are awake,beginning at one end; and when we Dream, at another.

Apparitions Or Visions

The most difficult discerning of a mans Dream, from his wakingthoughts, is then, when by some accident we observe not that wehave slept: which is easie to happen to a man full of fearfullthoughts; and whose conscience is much troubled; and that sleepeth,without the circumstances, of going to bed, or putting off hisclothes, as one that noddeth in a chayre. For he that taketh pains,and industriously layes himselfe to sleep, in case any uncouth andexorbitant fancy come unto him, cannot easily think it other than aDream. We read of Marcus Brutes, (one thathad his life given him byJulius Caesar, and was also his favorite, and notwithstandingmurthered him,) how at Phillipi, the night before he gave battellto Augustus Caesar, he saw a fearfull apparition, which is commonlyrelated by Historians as a Vision: but considering thecircumstances, one may easily judge to have been but a short Dream.For sitting in his tent, pensive and troubled with the horrour ofhis rash act, it was not hard for him, slumbering in the cold, todream of that which most affrighted him; which feare, as by degreesit made him wake; so also it must needs make the Apparition bydegrees to vanish: And having no assurance that he slept, he couldhave no cause to think it a Dream, or any thing but a Vision. Andthis is no very rare Accident: for even they that be perfectlyawake, if they be timorous, and supperstitious, possessed withfearfull tales, and alone in the dark, are subject to the likefancies, and believe they see spirits and dead mens Ghosts walkingin Churchyards; whereas itis either their Fancy onely, or els theknavery of such persons, as make use of such superstitious feare,to pass disguised in the night, to places they would not be knownto haunt.

From this ignorance of how to distinguish Dreams, and otherstrong Fancies, from vision and Sense, did arise the greatest partof the Religion of the Gentiles in time past, that worshippedSatyres, Fawnes, nymphs, and the like; and now adayes the opinionthan rude people have of Fayries, Ghosts, and Goblins; and of thepower ofWitches. For as for Witches, I think not that their witchcraft is any reall power; but yet that they are justly punished,for the false beliefe they have, that they can do such mischiefe,joyned with their purpose to do it if they can; their tradebeingneerer to a new Religion, than to a Craft or Science. And forFayries, and walking Ghosts, the opinion of them has I think beenon purpose, either taught, or not confuted, to keep in credit theuse of Exorcisme, of Crosses, of holy Water, and other suchinventions of Ghostly men. Neverthelesse, there is no doubt, butGod can make unnaturall Apparitions. But that he does it so often,as men need to feare such things, more than they feare the stay, orchange, of the course of Nature, which he also can stay, andchange, is no point of Christian faith. But evill men under pretextthat God can do any thing, are so bold as to say any thing when itserves their turn, though they think it untrue; It is the part of awise man, to believe them no further, than right reason makes thatwhich they say, appear credible. If this superstitious fear ofSpirits were taken away, and with it, Prognostiques from Dreams,false Prophecies, and many other things depending thereon, bywhich, crafty ambitious persons abuse the simplepeople, men wouldbe much more fitted than they are for civill Obedience.

And this ought to be the work of the Schooles; but they rathernourish such doctrine. For (not knowing what Imagination, or theSenses are), what they receive, they teach: some saying, thatImaginations rise of themselves, and have no cause: Others thatthey rise most commonly from the Will; and that Good thoughts areblown (inspired) into a man, by God; and evill thoughts by theDivell: or that Good thoughts are powred (infused) intoa man, byGod; and evill ones by the Divell. Some say the Senses receive theSpecies of things, and deliver them to the Common-sense; and theCommon Sense delivers them over to the Fancy, and the Fancy to theMemory, and the Memory to the Judgement, likehanding of things fromone to another, with many words making nothing understood.

Understanding

The Imagination that is raysed in man (or any other creatureindued with the faculty of imagining) by words, or other voluntarysignes, is that wegenerally call Understanding; and is common toMan and Beast. For a dogge by custome will understand the call, orthe rating of his Master; and so will many other Beasts. ThatUnderstanding which is peculiar to man, is the Understanding notonely his will;but his conceptions and thoughts, by the sequell andcontexture of the names of things into Affirmations, Negations, andother formes of Speech: And of this kinde of Understanding I shallspeak hereafter.

CHAPTER III. OF THE CONSEQUENCE OR TRAYNEOF IMAGINATIONS

By Consequence, or Trayne of Thoughts, I understand thatsuccession of one Thought to another, which is called (todistinguish it from Discourse in words) Mentall Discourse.

When a man thinketh on any thing whatsoever, His next Thoughtafter, is not altogether so casuall as it seems to be. Not everyThought to every Thought succeeds indifferently. But as wee have noImagination, whereof we have not formerly had Sense, in whole, orin parts; so we have no Transition from one Imagination to another,whereof we never had the like before in our Senses. The reasonwhereof is this. All Fancies are Motions within us, reliques ofthose made in the Sense: And those motions that immediatelysucceeded one another in the sense, continue also together afterSense: In so much as the former comming again to take place, and bepraedominant, the later followeth, by coherence of the mattermoved, is such manner, as water upon a plain Table is drawn whichway any one part of it is guided by the finger. But because insense, to one and the same thing perceived, sometimes one thing,sometimes another succeedeth, it comes to passe in time, that inthe Imagining of any thing, there is no certainty what we shallImagine next; Onely this is certain, it shall be something thatsucceeded the same before, at one time or another.

Trayne Of Thoughts Unguided

This Trayne of Thoughts, or Mentall Discourse, is of two sorts.The first is Unguided, Without Designee, and inconstant; Whereinthere is no Passionate Thought,to govern and direct those thatfollow, to it self, as the end and scope of some desire, or otherpassion: In which case the thoughts are said to wander, and seemimpertinent one to another, as in a Dream. Such are Commonly thethoughts of men, that are not onely without company, but alsowithout care of any thing; though even then their Thoughts are asbusie as at other times, but without harmony; as the sound which aLute out of tune would yeeld to any man; or in tune, to one thatcould not play. And yetin this wild ranging of the mind, a man mayoft-times perceive the way of it, and the dependance of one thoughtupon another. For in a Discourse of our present civill warre, whatcould seem more impertinent, than to ask (as one did) what was thevalue ofa Roman Penny? Yet the Cohaerence to me was manifestenough. For the Thought of the warre, introduced the Thought of thedelivering up the King to his Enemies; The Thought of that, broughtin the Thought of the delivering up of Christ; and that again theThought of the 30 pence, which was the price of that treason: andthence easily followed that malicious question; and all this ...