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INTRODUCTION: ORGANIZATION AND ORGANIZING
What is an organization? Everyone knows: universities, airlines, chemical plants, supermarkets, government departments. These are all organizations. Some have been around for a long time, employing numerous people across many continents ā Microsoft, Shell, McDonaldās, Toyota. Others are smaller, locally based ā a school, a family-owned restaurant, a small consulting firm, a pottery.
Organizations enter our lives in different ways: we work for them, we consume their products, we see buildings which house their offices, we read about them in the newspapers and absorb their advertisements. When we look at organizations, especially the larger, older, famous ones, they seem solid, they seem permanent, they seem orderly. This is, after all, why we call them organizations. Images of organizations as solid, permanent, orderly entities run through many textbooks. But, in our view, these books tell only half the story. They obscure the other half: the life and activity that buzzes behind the apparent order. Sometimes this bursts into view, revealing chaos even ā such as when computer systems break down, when there is delay or accident on an airline, when products are sent to the wrong destinations or when bookings are made for the wrong dates. They also obscure the immense human efforts and energies that go into keeping organizations more or less orderly.
In this book, our focus is not on āorganizationā but āorganizingā ā the activities and processes of doing things in organizations. We do not take organization for granted; after all, many large and well-known organizations have faded or died for one reason or another. Instead, we focus on the processes of organizing and being organized. We highlight the activities which go on in organizations. We look at our emotions, the stories and gossip which we trade, the deals we strike, the games we play and the moral dilemmas we face when in organizations.
Organizations get likened to many things ā machines, armies, garbage cans, theatrical plays, the human body, and so on. We find the analogy of a river helpful. Like a river, an organization may appear static and calm if viewed on a map or from a helicopter. But this says little about those who are actually on or in the moving river, whether swimming, drowning or safely ensconced in boats. Our aim in this book is to highlight the experiences of those people who actually know and understand the river well, to present their stories and learn from their adventures. We are hoping that the images of organization which we generate have more in common with the moving, changing, living river than with the tidy lines of a map.
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ALREADY ABOUT ORGANIZING?
You probably know far more than you think. If you have been formally employed, you have already peeped behind the organizational screen; felt what it is like to be told what to do or to tell others what to do; to do boring or exciting work; to sink into mundane routine or cope with unexpected crises and problems; to interact with a wide range of people; to daydream; to see inefficiency around you; to try and meet deadlines; to feel stress; to experience elation and excitement; to see how differently different managers do their work; to give and receive help from others ā¦ If you have not had a job, you have been part of organizing in project groups at school, sports meetings, family holidays, Christmas dinners, pub crawls, cinema outings with friends, trips to clubs and so forth. You do not have to have had a leadership role in these to be part of organizing, and already to know, through experience, what seems to operate successfully and what seems to fail. Trust these experiences; they are very important. Use them actively as you read this book; build on them with the concepts, stories and studies that we relate to you.
ORGANIZING ā KEEPING THINGS IN ORDER
In this book, organizing is treated as a continuous set of activities. We all have different perceptions of, and tolerances for, disorder ā revealed classically in the contrast between a teenagerās view of a ātidyā bedroom and that of his/her parents. In work settings, āgetting organizedā means different things to different people. Some people seem to operate effectively for years in offices with papers and files strewn all over the place, using their memory as a diary. When challenged about the apparent chaos, they will usually retort that it is fine for them, as long as no one else moves things around.
But not all of us find organizing easy or agreeable. This is how Bill, a manager, described his ātypical dayā:
REAL-LIFE EXAMPLE
Getting organized is something that I donāt find easy. I have in front of me a book called Get Yourself Organized offered by a friend, who was perhaps trying to give me a hint. It looks appealing; it looks sensible. It is written in clear type, with a bold ākey messageā printed on every other page:
- Decide on your major priorities.
- Put a timescale and deadline on each priority.
- If you can do it today, do it!
- Who do you need to contact to make things happen?
- Interruptions ā avoid them!
- At the end of the day, leave your desk clear.
Well, I kept a diary of some of the things that happened to me the other day. Here are some snippets:
Itās 7.30 in the morning and Iām driving to work, the loose ends of yesterday still in my head. Iāve got a 9.30 meeting with the strategy committee and Iām not looking forward to it. I need to get my ideas straight on how we market the new truck, or I know John will screw me and get the cash for his new project ā¦ Mobile rings. Itās my secretary, Alice ā have I remembered the lunch meeting with Dr Hosikkii from our Japanese subsidiary? Iād totally forgotten about it.
At my desk and a screen full of emails. Iāll answer the important-looking ones first. Bill phones; he urgently wants to see me before the 9.30 meeting ā¦ He comes in, looks awful. He tells me he needs a few days off because his sonās very ill. Of course, he must go home, but how am I going to manage with him away?
Iām ten minutes late for the meeting; I feel embarrassed and the Chief Executive looks disapproving ā¦ Itās a tense meeting but I seem to have at least one ally ā Jean from Sales. I can trust her, but itās Alan from Production who I canāt figure out. Sometimes heās with me, sometimes heās really obstructive. I must take him out for a drink and have a bit of a chatā¦
The meeting breaks up and I take the opportunity to walk back with the Chief Executive. I explain my lateness and manage to get him to hear my plans for shifting the staff around in my section and the problem of overload. At least he didnāt say a new appointment was out of the questionā¦
Back to my office and Alice looks tense. The main computer is down and we need the financial forecasts for the annual report. I phone Helen in Accounts ā sheās helped me in the past. Meanwhile a call-waiting from Germany on the spec for the new truck. They need to go to press on it this week. Iām really angry with the agency who were supposed to coordinate this. I phone them and lay it on the line. They cost us a small fortune; Iām going to have to look around for a new agencyā¦
A good lunch with Hosikkii; I realize now that Iām going to have to visit him in Tokyo much sooner than I thought. Itās an exhausting journey and I canāt stay away more than three days. Iām away from my kids yet againā¦
2.15 pm. The Chief Executive calls me ā Iāve won! Great! Not only will I get what I wanted for marketing the truck, but I can also hire a new assistant. Sometimes I love this job ā¦ I tell Alice to pass the news around. I dash over to Markās office and congratulate him. He persuaded me in the first place to increase our bid.
I stop at Brendaās desk in the big, open-plan office. āI know you want something from meā, she says, āthatās the only reason you ever visit meā. āHow can you say that!ā, I reply, sounding offended. Sheās right, of course. I ask her if she has any advance news on the customer survey we conducted last month. She feigns ignorance, and then slips me a computer print-out from her draw. āI need this back today, please; itās red hot.ā
I find a quiet corner to hide and read the report. Wow! Two of our products have done disastrously. We are going to need a completely revised PR plan. Is that why the Chief Executiveās been so accommodating? More work for me? Alice bleeps me. Says I need to call Eric. I call right away. Never keep your Director waiting. He wants me to stand in for him at an executive meeting tomorrow because āsomethingās come upā. I dutifully agree; I bet itās the customer survey stuff. But it also means cancelling the appraisal interview Iām doing on Marcus. Heāll get even more stressed now. Iāll get Alice to make my excuses.
Two more meetings. The first is terminally tedious: a presentation from a consultant on a computer information system. He couldnāt sell me a washing machine. Fortunately, Iām interrupted, with a query over the copy on our new trade brochures ā are we being sexist? The second was an hour with a research student from a university who was looking at marketing in the automotives sector. She actually had some thought-provoking questions; itās a shame I couldnāt give her more time. And it was hardly quality time ā my phone rang four times, each time with someone wanting an instant decision or opinion.
4.00 pm already. Grab a coffee. Meet Jane at the machine. Had I heard that Martin was leaving? No, I hadnāt. Itās rumoured that heās got a plum job in Wales with one of our competitors. āMore re-organization for usā, I quipped. The rest of the afternoon I found I couldnāt get Martinās leaving out of my head. Maybe thatās just what I should doā¦
Itās 6.15 pm and things, at last, have quietened down. Iāll see whatās left of the emails and what new messages there are. Oh yes, I must get the agenda for tomorrowās executive meeting, otherwise Iāll look a prat. āAlice, are you still there ā¦?ā
AT THE END OF THE DAY, LEAVE YOUR DESK CLEAR, says the book.
They must be joking!
Organizing, in this account, involves tensions, preferences, interruptions, politics, power and personalities. Maybe Bill could have been a better organizer, but his account chimes with what we know about the experienced realities of managing. It is often a whirl of activity; quick switches from one issue to another; gossip and speculation; people dependent on each other; bargaining and compromise; developing contacts and friends; reconciling work pressures with domestic demands; time is always precious. The picture of the cool, rational thinker, quietly planning the day, is a myth.
FRONT STAGE, BACK STAGE
The process of organizing defies tidy, universal, categories. As consumers (customers, students, passengers and so on), we take for granted that things will get done. Lectures, meetings, examinations, happen. Individual and group effort come together to create the hard product ā the car, mobile phone, DVD player, pen, paper; or the service ā delivering a meal, cutting hair, preaching a sermon, policing a city, running a train. We hardly bother with the organizing processes behind these events. The struggles, politics, negotiations, anguish and joys of actual organizing remain, for the most part, invisible to the consumer: they are back stage. When they are inadvertently revealed, showing how precarious organization can be, it can come as something of a shock ā as the following tale from of one us reveals:
REAL-LIFE EXAMPLE
Once I was booking tickets for a family holiday at a local, family-run, travel agent. They were busy, and I queued for a long time. Eventually, I was served by an elderly gentleman who was having difficulty matching the glossy brochure packages with the figures on his computer screen. He got very confused ā neither the dates nor the prices seemed to match the published details. The queues behind me were growing ever longer. The staff were getting hopelessly overloaded and stressed. The tension was growing, but, like good British customers, no one in the queue complained. The breaking point came with a loud, sharp, whisper from a younger, female, member of staff to the man who was serving me:
āFor Christās sake, give it up, Dad! He only wants a flight reservation; itās not worth our trouble.ā
The man turned on her immediately and retorted, through clenched teeth:
āHow dare you! A customer is a customer; thatās what weāre here for!ā
He then proceeded to tell me that āthey only tolerated him in the shop at weekends nowā and they had their ādifferences of opinionā.
Some of the entrails of the organization had suddenly been revealed. I had seen something I should not have seen, and I was uncomfortable. I did not want to witness a row or receive a confession ā I wanted a family holiday! I now mistrusted the service. I could not play my customer role properly if they did not play out their role as ātravel agentsā.
I decided to go elsewhere.
ORGANIZING AS A MEANING-CREATING PROCESS
When we get close to the experience of people organizing, there is the impression of a lot of personal and interpersonal work going on. In the above exchange, the protagonists were not just observing or responding to each otherās actions; they were also making judgements and creating meanings for themselves.
Seen through the eyes of different individuals, what happened may have seemed very different. Each may have told a different story about what āreallyā happened. For example:
- the elderly gentlemanās story: ācustomers were happy to queue for personal, caring serviceā
- his daughterās: ācustomers were in a hurry, dear old dad all at seaā
- the story-tellerās: ācustomer pressure reveals cracks in the organizationā
- other customersā: āincompetent travel agentsā; ārude young peopleā; āpoorly organized officeā.
The meaning of the incident is not obvious. Even the meaning of particular words or sentences may be ambiguous. āItās not worth our troubleā could be interpreted as a personal insult, or as an expression of frustration with dad ā or with customers in general. āA customer is a customerā could be taken as a brave assertion of good old-fashioned service. But in this case, what about all the customers waiting? Does their inconvenience count for nothing? Alternatively, it m...