Islam

Origin & Belief

Emory C. Bogle

• Publisher: University of Texas Press
• Year: 2022
• Print ISBN: 9780292708624
• eBook ISBN: 9780292783102
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Islamic Theology

This introduction to Islam offers a detailed overview of the history, beliefs, and traditions of the world's fastest-growing religion.
 
Today, an understanding of Islam is essential not only for religious and political leaders but also for ordinary citizens who increasingly interact with Muslims as neighbors, coworkers, and schoolmates. This book is designed to offer the general public a concise overview of the origins, basic beliefs, and common practices of Islam, as well as the reasons for its dramatic resurgence in recent times.
 
Historian and Middle East scholar Emory Bogle details the life and mission of the prophet Muhammad and describes how Islam spread after his death. Bogle accounts for the rise and contemporary influence of Shi'i Islam, a topic of particular interest to Western readers. He also explains the basic beliefs ("The Five Pillars") of Islam, as well as the role played by the Qur'an (Islam's scriptures), the hadith (the words and behavior of Muhammad), and the shari'a (Islamic law).

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MUHAMMAD AND THE ORIGIN OF ISLAM

The popular association of nomadism with Arabia often leads to the assumption of a pastoral origin for Islam, which in fact developed in an urban environment. No less an observer than the Prophet Muhammad said, “We are an urban people.” This urban orientation shaped the outlook and nature of Islam. The complicated private property considerations and business contracts of its earliest adherents in Mecca addressed issues that did not concern most of the rural population in the region. Their participation in sophisticated international trade also accustomed Meccans to address concerns of a universal nature. Mecca’s commerce, therefore, gave the city and its residents a global orientation that transcended parochial restraints.

Mecca’s centuries-old tradition as a sacred religious center also provided it with an aura and outlook commensurate with cosmic speculation. Mecca was holy. There was a sense in Mecca of the confluence of spiritual powers in the rocky valley. Believers in all known gods of the region placed their gods, or symbols of their gods, in a common temple, called the Kaaba, and ecumenically gathered there to worship. The depiction of Christian holy symbols in the Kaaba, a cube-shaped structure containing the sacred Black Stone, indicates either that Christian monotheists shared the sense of holiness in Mecca or that polytheists placed manifestations of Christianity there because they respected and revered the One God of Christians.

Annually all conflicts, including blood feuds, ceased in a specified region for a period of time that allowed pilgrims to benefit from the special aura at the Kaaba. Lest cynics say that this pilgrimage to the Kaaba resulted from commercial considerations, there are indications that religious practice preceded commerce. It is true that the temporary fairs that accompanied the annual pilgrimage gradually grew into a permanent commercial settlement. The inextricable connection between the economic health of Mecca and pilgrimage to the Kaaba is beyond dispute, but it was the gravitation of pilgrims to the holiness of Mecca that determined its development as a center for commerce.

The values of Mecca, rather than those of Yathrib (later Medina), shaped Islam even though it thrived in Yathrib after expulsion from Mecca. Muhammad, a Meccan, perceived the world from the perspective of his native city. There is no evidence that his personal relationship with God changed his basic nature in any significant way, and God used him as he had developed within the culture of his city and its surroundings. Since they had not shared in his elevation to prophecy, however, Meccans initially perceived no advantage in accepting or even tolerating Islam. The Prophet and his followers obtained haven in Yathrib as mediators among its quarreling factions rather than as missionaries teaching a new religion and a new way of life. While Yathrib had to serve as his base of operations, the success of Muhammad’s movement as a religion depended upon the city of Mecca’s acknowledgment of Islam as the legitimate fruition of its centuries of holiness.

The dual role of Mecca as an ecumenical religious center and as a thriving center for international trade helps explain how it could create, sustain, and spread a religion that was globally applicable and compatible. Islam’s initial success, however, depended upon acceptance of the city-born religion by rural, polytheist bedouin tribesmen. Despite the commonalities in attributes and attitudes of urban and rural Arabs, there were enough differences between them to test Islam’s potential for universal appeal. City life and social structure differed drastically from rural life and social structure, regardless of their common language and considerable economic interdependence. Tribal concerns that dominated rural Arabs became blurred in cities where even clans within a tribe tended to operate independently from each other. Individuals had myriad opportunities in cities to establish different kinds of relationships, affinities, and preferences, some of which were totally unrelated to family or tribal considerations. The financial disparity between the wealthy 'Abd Shams clan and the economically marginal Hashim clan, both of the Quraysh tribe, illustrates the effects of centuries of city life upon a tribe. In very important matters, urban peoples of different cultures had more in common with each other than with rural people who spoke the same language. For instance, religion, law, morals, ethics, customs, marriage practices, and land-tenure practices that developed in urban settings were frequently inapplicable to rural settings.

It was, of course, untenable that the One God would reveal religious practice suitable exclusively for one kind of life, in one place, at one time. It had to be for all people, in all places, for all times. From the outset, urban-born Islam successfully met the challenge of fulfilling the religious needs of the rural Arabs who constituted most of the population of the Arabian peninsula.

Perhaps Islam’s simplicity accounts for its acceptance initially in urban and rural Arabia and then across the globe. The omnipresence and omnipotence of the One God constituted the essence of Islam. Acceptance of a single divinity gave unity to all things for all time. A harmony of interdependence throughout the universe had to follow from such an outlook. This belief unified all people and obliterated the significance of tribe or locality. Converted polytheists immediately became the brethren of Jewish and Christian monotheists. Acknowledgment of Muhammad as God’s prophet was also essential for Islam, as his teachings and God’s words in the Qur'an constituted amendments to earlier monotheistic revelations.

Hesitancy to accept a mortal messenger was a problem for many, but belief in a single God who cared about human welfare required a level of faith that relegated everything else to the province of details. According to Islam, only God was divine. Everything else, including prophets, was subject to His universal and unchanging laws. Islam taught that human behavior within God’s law determined rewards and/or punishments during earthly life and throughout eternity. While some have tried to make Islam more complicated, it spread and endured because of the simple, practical teachings of Muhammad.

THE SETTING

Islam emerged in a remarkably brief time in a fairly small area about halfway between the two extremities of Yemen and Syria on the Arabian peninsula. While polytheism dominated the vast region in the middle of the peninsula, both ends were steeped in monotheism. The region of Islam’s birth became important because of its extensive intercourse with Yemen and Syria.

At the beginning of the sixth century, Yemen, which already had a Christian element, was under the control of a Jewish ruler by the name of Dhu Nuwas. Under Byzantine instigation the Abyssinian Empire gained control of and ruled Yemen from 525 to 574. Since the Abyssinians practiced Monophysite Christianity, most Arabs in the region were unfamiliar with the concepts of the dual nature of Christ as man and deity and the Trinity, which were found in other Christian communities.

Persians invaded Yemen in 574 and war ensued, continuing until Persians expelled the Abyssinians in 597. Soon thereafter the Persian conflict with the Byzantine Empire left Yemen unattended, and it devolved back to the control of indigenous elements composed of native Yemenites as well as Abyssinians and Persians. Polytheists dominated Yemen from that time on, but a large number of Jews and a small number of Christians also resided there.

Mecca, which is about halfway between Yemen and Syria, evolved into an important city as the disarray in Yemen reduced the capacity of that region to handle its affairs. Mecca is located in a flat, rocky valley a mile and a half long by less than half a mile wide with sheer rock walls, where nature precluded agriculture or even animal husbandry. It was, however, an ancient site for worship. The Kaaba contained many idols of the polytheists of the region and, as mentioned earlier, probably also contained some Christian icons or other religious representations.

The Quraysh tribe, composed of several major clans, dominated Mecca from early in the fifth century. Meccans became the principal middlemen in trade between Yemen and Syria in the second half of the sixth century. Trade of this magnitude required considerable knowledge and skill. Perhaps of most importance to its continued success was the ability of the Quraysh to maintain safe passage for their cargo over more than one thousand miles of trails that passed through numerous tribal territories. Armed Meccans and mercenaries accompanied the caravans, but agreements with the tribes, which often required payment for protection, provided the greatest security for the safe passage of trade.

By the sixth century most trade transpired from two annual caravans. One went south to Yemen to obtain goods from India, China, and other points eastward for sale in Syria and Egypt. Most of the goods carried on the return trip from the north met the needs of the Hejaz—the strip along the west coast of the Arabic peninsula comprising Mecca and Yathrib. Smaller caravans also accounted for some portion of Mecca’s trade. All caravan activity and military activity, however, depended upon the availability of adequate water and grazing for camels and horses, as well as upon favorable weather conditions. Unusually harsh weather prevented or delayed merchant and military operations.

MUHAMMAD’S BACKGROUND

Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 to Amina of the Zuhra clan and 'Abdullah of the Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. His paternal grandfather, 'Abd al-Muttalib, was the only son of Hashim, founder of the Hashim clan. Hashim was the son of 'Abd Manaf and the grandson of Qasi, who elevated both the Quraysh tribe and Mecca from obscurity to prominence.

'Abd al-Muttalib, Muhammad’s grandfather, was important for his illustrious lineage and his right to provide the pilgrims with food and water. He obviously had a strong vested interest in the polytheist pilgrimage traffic to Mecca. The fact that he gave Muhammad’s father the name of 'Abdullah, which means “servant or slave of God,” indicates that he had a strong affinity for “The God,” represented by the Black Stone in the Kaaba. Given the general religious tolerance among most polytheists, there is no reason to believe Hejaz Arabs concluded that the existence of “The God” or “The Supreme God” precluded the existence of other gods. Each god had a particular function. Individuals could choose any combination of gods to satisfy their needs. The entire experience of Mecca had religious significance. Mecca, in general, and the immediate area of the Kaaba were sacred and had been for longer than anyone could say and for reasons that worshipers no longer remembered. Consequently, people from all over Arabia could make pilgrimages to Mecca at specific times without fear for their safety or their property. Since the worship of many gods was an ancient practice, it was understandable that the sacred area of Mecca accommodated these known gods.

Many Arabs knew about the concept of monotheism, but few had received instruction in such beliefs. Interestingly, however, most of the Arab Christians insisted upon the Monophysite approach to Christianity, which rejected the confusing concept of the Trinity. Apparently there was something in the Arab temperament receptive both to the notion of a god for every function and to that of a single god who had no partners and needed no help. Arab polytheists observed that Christians and Jews generally lived more bountiful lives than themselves, which perhaps led them to the conclusion that Christians and Jews pleased the One God. It would be difficult to underestimate, however, the trauma involved for tradition-bound Arabs to embrace a religion from an outside culture, with the attendant way of life. Some Arabs, who were known as hanifs, became monotheists but did not embrace any particular religion. The heart and/or mind that led them to monotheism also held them to the culture of their forefathers. Their numbers were few, but the rapid and zealous spread of monotheism among the Arabs in one decade hints at a deep and widespread yearning for a monotheism based upon Arab culture. Arabs needed to be true at once to their traditions and to the One God.

The central role of the Black Stone in the Kaaba, the large Jewish communities in and near Yathrib, a sprinkling of Christians in Yemen, and the domination of Christianity among the Ghassanid, Lakhmid, and other Arab tribes in the north acquainted the Arabs of the Arabian peninsula with monotheism. Caravans of a thousand camels and their accompanying merchants, soldiers, and other functionaries traveled annually from Mecca to Syria. Such efforts involved a large percentage of the population of that small city. Some branched off to Egypt. Orthodox Christianity dominated the entire region which these Meccans visited for weeks annually to conduct commerce. Caravans of similar size went annually to Yemen, where Judaism remained strong following its militant hegemony in the early sixth century. Fifty years of Abyssinian Monophysite Christian domination had followed the Jewish period. Persian and polytheist forces did not regain control of Yemen until after Muhammad married Khadija. Christianity was widespread among the Lakhmid Arabs of the al-Hira region on the Euphrates before Muhammad received his first revelation. Meccans traded with their Lakhmid brethren by a route that passed through the Nefud. Understanding how extensively Arabian peninsula residents interacted with monotheists makes it less surprising to learn that at least one male and one female cousin of 'Abd al-Muttalib were reputedly very familiar with Christian scriptures.

Since 'Abdullah, Muhammad’s father, died before the boy was born, the future prophet of Islam became the ward of his grandfather, 'Abd al-Muttalib. In keeping with prevailing custom, he lived most of his first six years in the countryside among the Bani Saad tribe, in the care of his wet nurse, Helema. When his mother died within a year after he returned to Mecca, Muhammad went to live with his grandfather. But 'Abd al-Muttalib died within two years and the eight-year-old boy went to live with Abu Talib, his paternal uncle (not to be confused with Abi Talib, a latter-day caliph).

We know little about Muhammad until he joined the merchant enterprise of his female cousin Khadija. Most scholars agree that Muhammad was twenty-five years of age when he married the forty-year-old widow in 595, after she proposed marriage to him. For any era, that would have been a fairly advanced age for her to bear six children with him. Their two sons died in infancy, and only one of his daughters, Fatimah, lived to be of historical significance as the wife of 'Ali and the mother of Hasan and Husayn. Apparently Muhammad brought no estate of his own to his marriage with Khadija. Unaccountably, Abu Talib experienced financial difficulties, while Muhammad’s marriage provided him a comfortable living. Abu Talib’s young son, 'Ali, joined Muhammad’s household, and the two cousins established a relationship more akin to that of father and son or uncle and nephew. Muhammad also formally adopted a Christian former slave boy by the name of Zayd ibn Haritha, who was close in age to 'Ali. In their earliest years of manhood, Muhammad called on each of them to fulfill important tasks that required exceptional character and bravery.

For the most part, only anecdotal material of questionable accuracy is available about Muhammad for the fifteen years following his marriage. There is no doubt of his involvement in Khadija’s commercial enterprise. The fact that many addressed him by the acquired honorific name of al-Amin (“the trusted one”) indicates he had a reputation for honesty and integrity.

At some point Muhammad adopted the practice of meditating alone in a cave on Mount Hira, adjacent to Mecca. While this activity indicates a personal spiritual search, evidence that other Meccans engaged in similar meditations manifests a pronounced spirituality and receptivity to nontraditional religious expression that may have been inherent in their culture.

THE CALL TO PROPHECY

During the month of Ramadan in 610, when Muhammad was forty years old, a heavenly messenger, later identified as the Archangel Gabriel, interrupted his meditations and said, “Oh Muhammad, you are the Messenger of God.” The experience shocked and horrified him because he feared he might be insane or controlled by an evil spirit. He fell to his knees, in terror rather than from reverence. The spirit ordered Muhammad to “Recite!” three times before he composed himself well enough to receive his first revelation, which became the first part of sura 96 of the Qur'an. He decided to throw himself off the mountain to end the insanity or curse, but the spirit moved closer and repeated “Oh Muhammad, you are the Messenger of God.”

Reassured by the second appearance of his heavenly visitor, he accepted the burden of prophecy. Scholars disagree, usually along sectarian lines, about which of his associates first learned of his experience, endorsed his call to prophecy, and embraced Islam. Apparently Khadija, 'Ali, Abu Bakr, and Zayd converted without hesitation and encouraged Muhammad to accept his mission and fulfill God’s role for him. Since 'Ali and Zayd were only ten years old, many question whether they were mature enough to make any decision other than to follow the lead of the man who functioned as their father.

The passage of two or three years before he received additional revelation aroused doubt and uncertainty in the new prophet. The next revelation instructed him to inform the Hashim clan that he was the Messenger of the One God. His Hashim clan was not impressed, and most members of the family, like other Meccans, apparently assumed he was suffering from some type of spell or dementia. Initially, the converts beyond Muhammad’s immediate household and friends were slaves and others without family connections in Mecca. As early as 613, however, the tiny Muslim group was causing enough of a stir in Mecca that Meccans warned pilgrims to avoid the new, misguided element.

When some younger members of Meccan families gradually began to affiliate with Muhammad, the new Muslim community (umma) caused rifts in families and resentment toward Muhammad. Anything that weakened family ties generated strong reaction in a society that placed family solidarity above all else. Muslim converts, upon embracing monotheism, usually adopted a strident antipathy toward polytheism. Their treatment within the community and their families usually depended on how much of that outlook they communicated to others. Belief in the Final Judgment and the reality of the horrors of Hell led many converts to disdain their pagan forefathers and zealously urge their family members to abandon the errors of their polytheism.

Fortunately for Muhammad, his mentor, Abu Talib, not only led the Hashim clan but also enjoyed a good reputation in the wider Meccan society. For several years he managed to protect Muhammad from the more severe repercussions he could have experienced for sowing dissent. His uncle’s protection did not extend to the slaves, non-Meccans, and other “unconnecte...

Table of contents

• Cover 
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents 
• Acknowledgments
• Introduction
• Chronology of Islam
• 1. Muhammad and the Origin of Islam
• 2. Islamic Belief and Practice
• 3. Islamic Expansion 570 to 1517
• 4. Shi'i Islam
• 5. Confrontation with Modern Secularism
• 6. Shi'i Response to Secularism
• Notes
• Glossary
• Select Bibliography
• Index
• Maps and Charts