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Authenticity of Foods of Plant Origin
Konstantinos Kotsanopoulos, Konstantinos Kotsanopoulos
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eBook - ePub
Authenticity of Foods of Plant Origin
Konstantinos Kotsanopoulos, Konstantinos Kotsanopoulos
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About This Book
Food is adulterated to increase profit or due to negligence. Adulteration can compromise food safety and quality, and harm consumers. This may undermine consumer trust and the reputation of the food industry. As such, it is very important to monitor, control and detect adulteration. A number of techniques have been developed for the authentication of food and verifying its quality and associated claims. Foods of plant origin are the source of nutrients for billions of people around the globe. Due to the huge variety of plants, and the lack of visual characteristics as a result of processing, advanced techniques are required to detect adulteration.
This book reviews the latest developments in the field of authenticity of foods of plant origin, examining concepts such as traceability, and how they are applied to facilitate the support of claims, as well as legislative requirements in the major economies around the world. The basic techniques used nowadays in verifying authenticity of these types of foods are reviewed and discussed, and their applications are summarized. The book also focuses on categories of foods most prone to adulteration attempts due to their characteristics, properties and production methods commonly followed, thus allowing the reader to more easily identify the chapter that is of interest in each case. The book will be of interest to food industrialists, chemists, quality control scientists and technologists, microbiologists, analytical chemists and food physical chemists within the food industry. It is also aimed at academicians who are interested in the authenticity of foods of plant origin and the advancements in the analytical fields that support relevant legal and marketing requirements.
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1 Traceability
1 School of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment, University of Thessaly, Fytoko St, 38446 Nea Ionia Magnesias, Volos, Hellas, Greece.
2 School of Science & Technology, Hellenic Open University, Parodos Aristotelous 18, 26 335, Patra, Greece.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
1. Introduction
The establishment of traceability is essential for providing safer food supplies and connecting producers and consumers. Foodborne diseases, such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), and the availability of products that require specific labelling [e.g., genetically modified organism (GMO)] render the use of traceability mandatory, in order to control all links in the food chain (Regattieri et al. 2007). In recent years, traceabilityâs importance has been widely recognized and the tool has been established as one of most important measures for guaranteeing food safety and quality. The development of traceability systems though can only be successfully performed via thorough understanding and reorganization of food supply chains (Dabbene et al. 2014). A traceability system of foods of plant origin across the farming and food supply chains can be defined as a documented identification of all processes involved in the production and sale of these foods. Its objective is the identification of all steps of the supply chain and the monitoring of the product as it moves through this chain. The system must be of high efficiency and effectiveness, accurately storing relevant information and making this information available as needed. Tools such as âFailure Mode Effect and Criticality Analysisâ (FMECA) can be used to detect possible critical points of a traceability system and propose improvements (Bertolini et al. 2006). Traceability in food manufacturing varies from in-house traceability within manufacturing sites to traceability across supply chains, from raw material cultivation to retailers. Carefully developed traceability systems are very important in order to achieve optimal benefits from quality and production control as well as to meet consumer demands (Moe 1998).
Borit and Santos (2015) stated that traceability is a tool that regulators use for managing risk in multiple supply chains, including, e.g., supply chains of GMOs. As a result, traceability can be used for supporting various claims. SchwĂ€gele (2005) noted that traceability systems are needed to provide information on the origin, processing, retailing and final destination of foods. The use of these systems can therefore increase consumersâ confidence in the food market and allow the effective detection and withdrawal of hazardous food. Animal feed production as an important step in the supply chains should also be covered by a harmonized traceability system facilitating the detection of fraud and hazardous substances by authorities.
Olsen and Borit (2018) reported that food traceability has been extensively covered by both regional and national legislation, research and projects as well as a very high number of scientific articles. Their study provided a structural approach for the description and analysis of a traceability system focusing particularly on differentiating between the system mechanisms and the characteristics of the units to be traced. The differentiation was made based on practical experience and engagement in international standardization processes in relation to traceability. For the purposes of their study, a traceability system encompasses the principles, practices, and standards that are needed to establish traceability in the food industry, regardless of how these are put in place. As these researchers mentioned, practically, computerized systems are principally employed to maintain traceability and determine the units under consideration, maintain records of the fragmentation or joining of these units and record unit characteristics. The distinction between the different components is of particular importance for the description and comparison of traceability systems, as well as for introducing improvements.
The European Union has issued Directive 2000/29/EC establishing rules for the control of the movement and trade within its territory of plants and products thereof and materials that can potentially be carriers of organisms harmful to plants. These plants and plant products are listed in Part A, Annex V of this Directive. Within the European Union, the rules dictate the conduction of controls and inspections as these plants and materials are produced during the growing seasons and post-harvest, issuing official producer registrations and plant passports, that are generated once controls are finalized (https://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/plant_health_biosecurity/trade_eu_en). For certain plants, plant products and other objects (listed in Part B, Annex VâDirective 2000/29/EC) that are imported into the European Union, phytosanitary certificates are required to certify that they have been subjected to inspections, do not carry harmful organisms and meet the plant health regulations of the member state they are imported into (https://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/plant_health_biosecurity/non_eu_trade_en). hese requirements can only be met if robust traceability systems are in place to monitor the movement of these products.
An examination of traceability in the food supply chain was conducted by the Institute of Food Technologists in the United States. Data on traceability were provided by industry representatives from food and non-food companies. It was shown that generally all food companies that participated in this assessment recognized that it is very important that a robust and efficient traceability system needs to be implemented within their supply chains. Most of the companies had systems in place to keep records, although these systems ranged from manual to sophisticated electronic-based systems. Various tracing practices have been seen in the industry, possibly as a result of the complexity of the food chains. However, similarities between the companies have been found in relation to the types of data collected, the ways data were captured and how data were shared within a site and among trading partners. It is important to mention that in comparison to non-food companies, the food supply chains were significantly more complex with a very high number of contributors around the globe, handling various products, which could be combined or processed (McEntire et al. 2010).
The costs but also the advantages of traceability systems when used to trace contaminated foodstuffs were discussed by Mejia et al. (2010). Among the costs considered were those of product-tracing systems and technologies, capital equipment, personnel, supplies and materials, social costs and value to society. Their article concluded that companies that have developed and implemented robust tracing systems benefit considerably via improved supply chain management, better inventory control, better access to contracts and markets, by being able to deliver more reliable product assurances, and effective and less expensive recalls. Product tracing systems facilitate the compartmentalization and reduction of the type and amount of product that may need to be recalled. Other benefits include the protection of brand names, maintaining consumer confidence and limiting liability claims. Although the benefits are considerable, the relevant costs of implementing robust traceability systems can be high. This is more noticeable in companies processing big amounts of materials that need to be traced into final products or when paper-based systems are used.
Food safety and quality are at the heart of consumer and industry interests. Incidents of food alteration, particularly when covered by the media, have a major effect on public opinion. The demands of improving quality controls are increasing thus great efforts are made to develop accurate and reliable molecular techniques for food analysis. DNA barcoding is a molecular-based method commonly used nowadays for the identification of biological specimens and can be effective for both raw and processed foods. An assessment of DNA barcoding as a traceability tool in the food industry showed that the method is widely used. This is a result of the continuously dropping cost of molecular analyses, the increasing availability of laboratories with the right equipment and trained personnel, the increasing availability of web-based resources and the increasing number of consumers requiring food of better quality (Galimberti et al. 2013).
2. Food Labelling
Labels are used to provide certain information about the ingredients and properties of foods, and they are used to allow consumers to take better-informed decisions with regards to the products they purchase and consume (https://www.bmel.de/EN/Food/Food-Labelling/food-labelling_node.html). Within the EU, the Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, lays down the requirements for the information that needs to be provided on labels of pre-packed products. Article 7 of this Regulation states that the information provided should not mislead the consumers as to its origin, while Article 26 renders the labeling of the country of origin or place of provenance mandatory when its omittance could be misleading, for example when the presentation of the product (its name, pictures, etc.) may imply it originates from a different country or area (Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011). It is therefore clear that traceability is required to meet this requirement. Legislation in the United States also enforces the provision of information on the country of origin at the point of purchase for various foods of plant origin (Newman et al. 2014). Specifically, United States requires that all retailers provide information to their customers in relation to the source of certain foods of plant origin, including fresh and frozen fruits and vegetables, peanuts, pecans, and macadamia nuts and ginseng (https://www.ams.usda.gov/rules-regulations/cool).
How the mandatory and voluntary labeling requirements will affect consumersâ choices is still not clear. Therefore, as labelling on the origin of products becomes more and more common around the globe, the need for additional theory-driven research increases, particularly from a macromarketing scope, to produce more generalizable knowledge on how this type of labelling can aggregate food marketing systems (Newman et al. 2014).
2.1 Identification systems (EAN, SSCC, GTN, and GLN)
2.1.1 EAN
EAN/UPC barcodes are practically used in the vast majority of consumer products. They are one of the first codes established and the most widely applied of all GS1 barcodes (https://www.gs1.org/standards/barcodes/ean-upc). The EAN/UPC group of symbols involves the GS1 barcodes. EAN/UPC barcodes can be very effectively used at a retail point-of-sale due to their design that renders them suitable for uses in high volume scanning environments. They can be used in GTIN, Restricted Circulation Numbers, coupons, and in-store codes as well as general distribution and logistics. EAN/UPC minimal sizes are increased in cases that they need to be scanned at both retail point of sales and in general distribution (https://www.gs1.org/docs/barcodes/GS1_Barcodes_Fact_Sheet-GS2/020EAN_UPC_family.pdf). The EAN barcode is very common in products sold in convenience stores and, due to its compatibility with UPC of U.S.A. and Canada and JAN of Japan, it is considered to be a universal code across the globe (https://www.keyence.com/ss/products/auto_id/barcode_lecture/basic/jan/).
2.1.2 SSCC
The SSCC is the GS1 Identification Key that is used for the identification of logistic units and its use is mandatory only in the case of logistic labels. By scanning a logistic unitâs SSCC barcode, its physical movement is matched with the electronic business messages that are linked to it. This identification key consists of an Extension Digit, a GS1 Company Prefix, a Serial Reference, and a Check Digit. The SSCC can be employed for all logistic units that need to be individually identified, including container loads. It can also though be used for the identification of pallets or units when moved within a warehouse or business (https://www.nicelabel.com/resources/files/doc/resources/local/en_US/3-STILL-SSCC-labeling-logistic-units.pdf).
Therefore, the logistic units that can be identified using this code can be any type of items packed together to be stored or transported (cases, pallets, parcels, containers). The SSCC is therefore very important to maintain traceability, as it allows the unique identification of each logistic unit and its content. It can also be encoded in a barcode or EPC/RFID tag, facilitating the identification of the units as they move within the supply chain worldwide. When SSCC data is shared via EDI or EPCIS, companies can exchange information about the status of the logistic units at any time. The use of SSCC allows companies to access additional information about the logistic unit, which can be shared via a Despatch Advice or Advanced Shipping Notice before the logistic units arrive. Upon receipt, scanning of the SSCC provides data that can accelerate the receipt of goods and any invoicing processes that follow. The SSCC is in full compliance with ISO/IEC 15459-part 1: unique identifiers for transport units, which is required for tracking and tracing logistic units in several international supply chains (https://www.gsl.org/docs/idkeys/GSLSSCC_Executive_Summary.pdf).
2.1.3 GTIN
Companies can use the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) for the unique identification of trade items. The GTIN can be employed for identifying types of products regardless of packaging (e.g., consumer un...