Pandemic Detection and Analysis Through Smart Computing Technologies

Ram Shringar Raw, Vishal Jain, Sanjoy Das, Meenakshi Sharma

• Publisher: Apple Academic Press
• Year: 2022
• eBook ISBN: 9781000571929
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Computer Science
• Subtopic: Computer Science General
• Index: Computer Science

This powerful new volume explores the diverse and sometimes unexpected roles that IoT and AI technologies played during the recent COVID-19 global pandemic. The book discusses the how existing and new state-of-the art technology has been and can be applied for global health crises in a multitude of ways.

The chapters in Pandemic Detection and Analysis through Smart Computing Technologies look at exciting technological solutions for virus detection, prediction, classification, prevention, and communication outreach. The book considers the various modes of transmission of the virus as well as how technology has been implemented for personalized healthcare systems and how it can be used for future pandemics.

The huge importance of social and mobile communication and networks during the pandemic is addressed such as in business, education, and healthcare; in research and development; for health information and outreach; in social life; and more. A chapter also addresses using smart computing for forecasting the damage caused by COVID-19 using time series analyses.

This up-to-the-minute volume illuminates on the many ways AI, IoT, machine learning, and other technologies have important roles in the diverse challenges faced during COVID-19 and how they can be enhanced for future pandemic situations. The volume will be of high interest to those in different fields of computer science and other domains as well as to data scientists, government agencies and policymakers, doctors and healthcare professionals, engineers, economists, and many other professionals. This book will also be very helpful to faculty, students, and research scholars in understanding the pre- and post-effect of this pandemic.

CHAPTER 1 Modes of Transmission of Coronavirus

MOHD. FAIZ SAIFI,¹ COLIN E. EVANS,^2,3 and NEHA GUPTA¹

¹Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi – 110025, India, E-mail: [email protected] (N. Gupta)

²Program for Lung and Vascular Biology, Stanley Manne Children’s Research Institute, Ann and Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

³Department of Pediatrics, Division of Critical Care, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA

ABSTRACT

Transmission of the pathogen plays a central role in disease biology and epidemiology. For viral infections, transmission is known to occur when the pathogen (virion) leaves its reservoir or host through a portal of exit and is then carried further by some mode of transmission and then via an appropriate entry portal infects the susceptible host. The newly emerging viral diseases are major threats to public health. Contemporary pandemics such as SARS and COVID-19 occur by the emergence of highly transmissible and pathogenic coronaviruses viz. SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, respectively. The World Health Organization has declared a worldwide emergency over the recent widespread of SARS-CoV-2, mediated infection among humans, widely known as COVID-19, a pandemic that might result in human death. The exact source of SARS-CoV-2 is still unknown; however, the disease might spread through COVID-19-positive individuals or a contaminated environment. Currently available information indicates that both SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 might have originated from their common natural host bat and transmitted the infection to humans via some intermediate animal host possibly through the mechanism of cross-species transmission. Hence, understanding various modes of transmission may prove beneficial in designing the strategies to break the chain of infection. The current chapter, thus describes the various possible modes of transmission for the emergent SARS-CoV-2 with a discussion on the mechanism of cross-species transmission and factors associated with the spread of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The pathogen’s transmission is crucial to disease biology and epidemiology. Transmission of viral infections is believed to occur when the pathogen (virion) exits its reservoir or host through an exit portal [1] and is then carried further by some mode of transmission and then via an appropriate entry portal infects the susceptible host. The majority of newly emerging viral diseases are becoming a public health threat [1]. Particularly, viruses emerging from wildlife hosts become a cause of high-impact disease as found in SARS, Ebola fever, influenza, and lately emerging COVID-19 in humans. The transfer of infectious agents from animals to humans via the mechanism of cross-species transmission is primarily responsible for the development of these diseases [2]. Furthermore, the transmission of the infectious agent can occur either as a vertical disease agent or a horizontal disease agent [3]. Vertical disease transmission involves the transmission of pathogens from parent to offspring such as in prenatal transmission while Horizontal transmission involves the transmission of pathogens from one individual to another in the same generation through various ways including physical contact, contaminated food, body fluids, airborne inhalation or via vectors [3]. Pandemics such as SARS and COVID-19 are considered to occur as a result of the advent of highly transmissible pathogens and pathogenic coronaviruses (CoVs) viz. SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, respectively [3]. These coronaviruses cause infections of the lower respiratory tract, and SARS-CoV was first identified in Guangdong province, China, in 2002, and later in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 as SARS-CoV-2 [1]. Both SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 are known to be originated from their common natural host bat and then transmitted the infection to humans via some intermediate animal host possibly through the mechanism of cross-species transmission. The current chapter describes the various possible modes of transmission for the emergent SARS-CoV-2 with a discussion on the mechanism of cross-species transmission and factors associated with the spread of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 [3]. Information provided here shall provide an in-depth understanding of various factors that are responsible for different modes of transmission for CoVs among humans and animals and may prove beneficial towards designing the strategies to break the chains of infection [4].

1.2 GENERAL ASPECTS RELATED TO TRANSMISSION

A global pandemic is characterized by the widespread emergence of chains of Infection. Modes of Transmission form the indispensable component of these chains of infection. To understand the complete picture of the emergence of infectious disease, we must know about the interaction of the infectious agent with the host and the environment. Infectious disease is caused by the interaction of pathogenic agent, host, and environment, according to the traditional epidemiologic triad model. These interactions are composed of several components and processes, which are often described using key terminologies. Figure 1.1 gives a diagrammatic representation of the traditional epidemiologic triad model. The current section defines the commonly used terminologies used to describe ‘Chains of infections’ as follows:

FIGURE 1.1 Traditional ‘epidemiologic triad’ model.

1. Transmission: The pathogen moves from the source of infection (individual or group) to a new host through this process [1].
2. Host: A host is an organism that bears mutualistic, parasitic, and commensal (Symbiont) guest (pathogen or causative agent) [2]. The host usually provides the guest with food and shelter. The simplest examples are animals serve as hosts to parasitic worms; a virus replicates itself in an organism or cell culture. Further, the host may also be classified as a Definitive (Primary) Host, which is an organism in which the parasite matures and reproduces sexually or secondary (intermediate host)—an organism that carries a sexually immature parasite and is needed by the parasite to complete its lifecycle.

To be able to survive for an extended period of time, pathogens (microorganisms) require reservoirs. Thus, the reservoir is the habitat where a pathogen obtains nutrition, grows, multiplies, and resides alive. Reservoirs can be either be living or non-living sites [3]. A reservoir, it should be noted, may or may not be the source from which a pathogen is transmitted to the host. For example, soil serves as a reservoir for Clostridium botulinum, but inappropriately canned food is the source of most infections in this case. Humans, too, act as reservoirs for a number of infectious diseases [4]. In sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), mumps, measles pathogens are transmitted from one person to another without the use of an intermediate host [5]. The smallpox virus, for which humans were the only reservoir, was declared eradicated after the last human case was detected and isolated [6]. When a pathogen leaves its reservoir then after the completion of the life cycle into the host, it causes a communicable disease that point is known as the portal of exit [7]. Thus, in general terms, the route through which the pathogen exits the host, which typically corresponds to the pathogen’s location, is referred to as the portal of exit. As an example, influenza viruses exit the respiratory tract, cholera vibrios in feces, blood-borne agents exit either by crossing the placenta from mother to the fetus or through cuts, needles in the skin, or blood-sucking arthropods [8]. The term “portal of entry” refers to the “means” by which a pathogen enters a susceptible host. The portal of entry provides access to the tissues/sites where the pathogen can multiply. Infectious agents also use the same gateway to reach a new host as they did to leave the previous host [9]. For example, the influenza virus exits the respiratory tract of the source host and enters the new host through the respiratory tract only. Many pathogens that cause gastroenteritis, on the other hand, take a fecal-oral route, in which they leave the source host in feces and are carried away by unwashed hands or a vehicle such as water or food, and then enter the host via ingestion through the mouth [10]. Thus, a pathogen exits the reservoir via a portal of exit, is transmitted via an appropriate mode of transmission, and reaches the reservoir via an appropriate portal of entry., the pathogen gets entry into the susceptible host or cause infection and this whole series of infection or a pathogen’s transmission is referred to as a “chain of infection” [11]. Further, Figure 1.2 represents the sequence involved in the transmission of a pathogen to produce a chain of infection.

FIGURE 1.2 Diagrammatic representation for ‘chain of infection.’ Chain of infection comprises of three main parts-reservoir, modes of transmission and susceptible host.

Pathogens can also use a dormancy mechanism, in which they live (but do not reproduce) in non-living environments for varying periods of time; for example, Clostridium tetani may survive in the soil and as a resistant endospore [12]. Viruses such as the influenza virus, which, after varying amounts of time on a banknote, can infect a cell culture and can live for 48 hours to 17 days. After varying amounts of time on a banknote, it can infect a cell culture, depending on the manner in which they are deposited on the banknote. Thus, an individual without showing any...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• About the Editors
• Table of Contents
• Contributors
• Abbreviations
• Preface
• 1. Modes of Transmission of Coronavirus
• 2. Understanding the Role of Existing Technology in the Fight Against COVID-19
• 3. Digital and Personalized Healthcare System for COVID-19 and Future Pandemics
• 4. Impact of Lockdown on Social and Mobile Networks During the COVID-19 Epidemic: A Case Study of Uttarakhand
• 5. Forecasting the Damage Caused by COVID-19 Using Time Series Analysis and Study of the Consequence of Preventive Measures for Spread Control
• 6. Platform-Driven Pandemic Management
• 7. Smart IoT Techniques to Improve Pandemic Outreach
• 8. Pre-Detection and Classification of Coronavirus Disease by Artificial Intelligence and Computer Vision
• 9. Concept Structure of Database Management System (DBMS) Portal for Real-Time Tracking and Controlling the Spread of Coronavirus
• 10. Wi-Fi-Based Proximity Social Distancing Alert to Fight Against COVID-19
• 11. Tracking, Modelling, and Understanding of Pandemic Outbreak with Artificial Intelligence and IoT
• 12. Detection of Emotional Cues of Depression Due to COVID-19 Pandemic
• Index