Japan occupied an important part of the life of Zhou Enlai (March 1898–January 1976) from his birth to death. He was born just after the first Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and grew up in the middle of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), in which the two countries vied for the spheres of influence in Manchuria (China’s Northeast region). Zhou went to an elementary school in the former capital of Manchuria, Fengtian (current Shenyang), and observed the effects of the war. Zhou then studied at Nankai Middle School in Tianjin, where a Chinese militia group had besieged international legations of the imperial powers, including Japan (the Boxer Rebellion, 1899–1901). After graduating from Nankai Middle School, Zhou went to study in Japan in September 1917, was enlightened about communism, and returned home in April 1919. 1
Upon returning to Tianjin, Zhou participated in the May Fourth Movement, the first nationwide popular uprising of nationalism in China, was arrested, and was expelled from Nankai University. Zhou then went to Europe in November 1920 and joined a Chinese communist cell in France in the spring of 1921. Thus, a young Chinese revolutionary and future leader of the People’s Republic of China (PRC or “China” hereafter) was born. Zhou returned to China and moved up the ranks in the Communist Party of China (CPC), while fighting the Beiyang warlords during the first United Front between the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) and the CPC. The CPC then fought the KMT, ruled by Chiang Kai-shek (October 1887–April 1975), and then the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) until winning the war with Japan (the second Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945), and the civil war in 1949. After the establishment of the PRC, Zhou dealt with Japan as the Chinese premier (and foreign minister) until his death in 1976. Thus, from his impressionable years and throughout his adult years, Zhou lived a life concerned with Japan, dealing with Japan, or fighting with Japan. 2
This work constitutes part two of a three-part study of Zhou Enlai and Japan by this author. Part one examined Zhou’s involvement with Japan during his early years and investigated his study years in Japan. Part two in turn analyzes Zhou’s relations with Japan during his mid-career, from his participation in the May Fourth Movement and his years in Europe to his involvement in the Xi’an Incident and the formation of the second United Front between the KMT and the CPC against Japan, which paved the way for the Chinese victory in the second Sino-Japanese War.
Literature Review
Early Career of Zhou Enlai
Despite the significance of Zhou’s involvement in the May Fourth Movement and his activities in Europe, this formative period of Zhou’s career is not well documented in his biographies in English. Zhou Enlai: A Biography by Dick Wilson (1984) and Zhou Enlai: The Early Years by Chae-jin Lee (1994) have chapters on this period; however, they are relatively short and contain misunderstandings. In turn, a Japanese diplomat, Ogura Kazuo, wrote a more reliable book in Japanese on Zhou’s life in Europe entitled Pari no Shū Onrai: Chūgoku-kakumeika no Seiō-taiken (Zhou Enlai in Paris: A Chinese Revolutionary’s Experiences in Western Europe, 1992). 3
Meanwhile, the definitive official biography, Zhou Enlai zhuan (Biography of Zhou Enlai, the “Official Biography” hereafter), was published in China. The original one-volume version, covering his life until 1949, was first published in 1989. Then the new version, with the addition of the second volume covering his life from 1949 to 1976, was published in 1998. The actual content of volume one of the 1998 version is almost identical to that of the 1989 version, with major changes in the formatting of footnotes. Both versions were edited by the Central Committee of the CPC (CCCPC) Party Literature Research Office (the official name in English) and they clarify many misunderstandings and speculations made in the previous studies of Zhou’s life. 4
Zhou Enlai and the Xi’an Incident
In addition, the critical roles Zhou played in the Xi’an Incident of December 1936 and in the subsequent formation of the anti-Japanese united front between the KMT and the CPC are not well documented in English. Moreover, the Xi’an Incident itself is still shrouded in mystery, and the previous studies are fraught with misunderstandings, even wrongly speculating that it was a conspiracy of the CPC or of the Third International (“Comintern,” hereafter). The Official Biography of Zhou Enlai (1989 and 1998) and the Official Chronology of Zhou Enlai (1989) clarify these misunderstandings by providing more accurate accounts of Zhou’s involvement in the incident, as well as that of the CPC and the Comintern. Although they might not have disclosed everything, sources provided for each passage include specific telegrams exchanged among Zhou, Mao Zedong, other CPC leaders, and the Comintern headquarters, with specific dates. 5
In addition, one of the earliest biographies of Zhou Enlai in any language, written by Matsuno Tanio (1961), provides a credible account of the Xi’an Incident. Matsuno, a reporter for the major Japanese daily Asahi Shimbun, resided in Beijing for half a year until the end of August 1957, when he was forced to leave China, as a quid pro quo for the Japanese government’s refusal to admit Chinese reporters to enter Japan. During his stay, Matsuno met Zhou many times and gathered information about him. Upon returning home, he wrote an excellent biography of Zhou up to the ten-year anniversary of the founding of the PRC. Although it was written more than half a century ago, it still sheds light on many important aspects of the Xi’an Incident and the secret missions Zhou engaged in for the peaceful settlement of the incident and on the formation of the second KMT–CPC United Front. 6
Zhang Xueliang’s Record of Repentance
In turn, the “culprit” of the Xi’an Incident, Northeastern Army commander-in-chief Zhang Xueliang (courtesy name, Hanqing, June 1901–October 2001), wrote a report on the incident in 1954 (or 1955 or 1956, depending on the source) by order of Chiang Kai-shek, who had placed Zhang under house arrest since December 1936, transferring him to various places across China and then to Taiwan in 1947. Chiang later gave the report to his son, Chiang Ching-kuo. Then the whole account was leaked and was published as an article entitled “Xi’an-shibian chanhui-lu” (“Record of Repentance for the Xi’an Incident”) in the journal Xiwang (Hope) in Taipei in July 1964. This caused a political storm and Zhang protested against the publication. Chiang Kai-shek in rage banned the journal, held Chiang Ching-kuo responsible, and punished those who were involved in the publication. Although most of the copies were recalled, some were smuggled to Hong Kong and republished in Mingbao (Light Report) in September 1968 (No. 32–34). 7
Subsequently, this article was compiled in several collections of Zhang’s writings published in China, under the title “Xi’an-shibian huiyi-lu” (Memories of Xi’an Incident). Although this account is significant as the sole record of the incident written by Zhang himself, and appears to be accurate overall, it should be read with a grain of salt because it was written for Chiang by his order. 8
Oral History of Zhang Xueliang
Then in 1990, shortly after the Taiwanese government had rehabilitated Zhang and had given him a complete recovery of his freedom on his 90th birthday (according to the traditional Chinese age counting), Zhang gave an interview to the Japanese public broadcast station, NHK, in Taipei on June 17 and then on August 3–5, 1990. During the interviews, Zhang candidly spoke about his life and his views of Japan, such as “Japan ruined my life.” Soon, a translation of the interviews was published in China and caused a sensation there. In addition, Columbia University history professor, Tang Degang (August 1920–October 2009), interviewed Zhang in January–May 1990 and the transcripts were compiled in Zhang Xueliang koushu-lishi (Oral History of Zhang Xueliang, 2009, 2013, and other versions). Then, Zhang’s death in 2001 resulted in another surge in interest in Zhang in China, and a plethora of biographies of Zhang, as well as collections of his oral history and writings, were published in China. 9
In contrast, notwithstanding the significance of the Xi’an Incident to the contemporary history of China and East Asia, there is no book in English that fully examines the incident. For that matter, there is no biography in English of Zhang Xueliang to the knowledge of this author, with one exception: Zhang Xueliang: The General Who Never Fought, written by Aron Shai (2012). 10
Scope of This Book
Through the new and old literature in Chinese, English, and Japanese, this book reexamines Zhou Enlai’s mid-career against the backdrop of Japanese imperialism. This book does not go into detail about the actual warfare during the second Sino-Japanese War because this particular subject is already well documented in literature in English. 11 Instead, this study focuses on lesser known and unknown aspects of Zhou’s involvement in the Xi’an Incident and the formation of the second KMT–CPC United Front against Japan, as the basis for how China fought with Japan in the war. While it is virtually impossible to write a book totally free of errors, especially biographies of political leaders whose careers are marked by secrecy, including that of Zhou Enlai, this book strives to leave as accurate a record as possible of Zhou’s mid-career. This work was made possible only because of the herculean efforts of the previous scholars and writers who tried their best to understand this enigmatic Chinese leader. This book is therefore a synthesis of all of the previous works on Zhou Enlai.
Notes
- 1.Zhonggong-zhongyang wenxian-yanjiushi, ed., Zhou Enlai nianpu 1898–1949 (Chronology of Zhou Enlai, 1898–1949), Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian-chubanshe and Renmin-chubanshe, 1989, 1–28.
- 2.Ibid., 28–843; Zhonggong-zhongyang wenxian-yanjiushi, ed., Zhou Enlai nianpu 1949–1976 (Chronology of ...