This book is about the role of religious and spiritual experiences in peopleās understanding of their environment, and how their place experiences are transformed in the process. We will examine how understandings and experiences of religious and place connections are motivated by the need to seek and maintain contact with perceptual objects, so as to form meaningful relationship experiences. The purpose is not to engage in comparative religion or analyse different religious traditions in relation to place, but rather to understand how peopleās perceptions of physical, imaginary and transpersonal objects shape their religious and place experiences.
In order to understand this phenomenon, religion and place are conceptualized as ātransitionalā objects with anthropomorphic attributes, having psychologically significant characteristics, especially in challenging situations. We also discuss religion and place as ātransactionalā objects of transference which become the substitute for the use of human interaction, playing a relational function as objects for emotionally attuned communication. We have summarized these two processes elsewhere, as shown below:
The function [of ] a transitional space goes beyond the periphery of security-seeking, and includes the need for identity formation within the context of an imagined relationship with objects of attachment. This is reflected in the place identity and/or religious identity the individual embodies as a subject of a transitional space. As a transactional phenomenon, the focus is not on the end of the interaction, but rather on the process of communication within a transitional space. Transactional process emphasises the content of interactions between the individual and their objects. (Counted & Watts, 2019, p. 50)
An individualās understanding of a perceptual object is likely to be contingent on the nature of the object and how it provides either transitional comfort or transactional interaction. How the individual perceives and reacts to the object is central to understanding the presumed events that shape religious and place experiences. Our main concern in this book is with the interplay of religion and place as a psychological phenomenon that occurs in everyday life at both conscious and unconscious levels.
In 1920, Austrian psychologist Fritz Heider wrote a whole thesis on āThing and Mediumā using the philosophical framework of Alexius Meinong, arguing that peopleās environmental conditions make the perception of distant objects possible. Heider starts his argument by exploring how individuals perceive objects and ends with the nature of the proximal stimuli that is been communicated. His view of relational processes in perception of physical objects led to the conclusion that such relations may influence peopleās perception of themselves and those around them. This basic perceptual process shows how people can make causal inferences about the causes and effects of events in relation to an object. In the context of this book, such processes involve relations between two, or more, entities. This also involves peopleās perception of imaginary and physical objects during religious and place experiences. How one feels and thinks about an object, how they perceive it and what they expect of the object are significant events to be discussed.
Why Study Religion and Place?
The dynamic interplay of religion and place has been important throughout human history and has shaped traditions and cultural identities. Peopleās sense of connection to sacred places and objects is recorded in myths, poems, folk tales and historical writings. Such symbolic experiences signal manās need for meaningful relationships and curiosity about experiences that define their identity and mastery of their environment and the world around. To understand religious experiences, one needs to understand the geographical setting of such phenomena, since religion is often practiced in the context of a particular place. The same can be said about how place experiences shape devotion to the sacred, and how people experientially relate to a Divine entity based on what is happening in their community. These links are important for understanding religious experiences, and the experience of particular geographical places, which are often inseparable. However, it requires considerable attention to detail to discern exactly how they are connected with each other.
One key reason for studying the interplay of religion and place is that it has something to teach us about geographical places. The role played by the environment in everyday life is linked to basic personality development and human experience. In other words, the experience of the environment is important for understanding human development. Studying place-related events and how they influence personality can complement the picture of the human nature. Every behaviour, feeling or thought occurs in the context of a particular environment, and what is experienced is often determined based on the particular place in which the experience occurs. Place-related behaviour and perceptions may share the same neural code which helps us understand social and developmental psychology. Geographical places are a significant part of the everyday life, and human behaviour is influenced by how the individual perceives and interprets what is happening in their environment, which then triggers planned behaviour. This is well-documented in the theory of planned behaviour (Boldero, 1995; Taylor & Todd, 1995).
Another reason for studying religion and place is that it offers an opportunity to learn more about religion. Scholars of religion who are concerned with interpreting mystical experiences have provided explanations for various religious phenomena. However, what is often not accounted for is how experiences of place shape religious experiences. We maintain that the genesis of religious experience is usually in a particular place. Perceptual processes are undertaken in the context of a personās environment and the objects to be found within that environment. In addition, the steps used to organize and interpret religious experiences involve experiences of place, whether those experiences are felt to come from within, or beyond, or the border between the two. Place offers a broader understanding of religion; just as religious experiences help us to better interpret place meanings and experiences. Taking account of how place influences experience is analogous to recognizing how embodied practices influence a wide range of experiences, in what is now generally known as āembodied cognitionā (Watts, 2013). It is increasingly evident that embodied cognition can make a significant contribution to the psychology of religion; we are arguing here that the psychology of place experience can make a similar contribution.
At present, there are no recorded books that have covered this important area of research. Most of the available literature on religion and place is written from the perspective of sociology, anthropology, geography and theology. There seem to be no perspectives on the interplay of religion and place from psychology, except for the recent work done by Victor Counted and colleagues on the Circle of Place Spirituality (e.g. Counted, 2018, 2019; Counted, Possamai, McAuliffe, & Meade, 2018; Counted & Watts, 2017, 2019; Counted & Zock, 2019). This psychological theory of place spirituality has been well-received, leading to conversations and commentaries on the topic in relation to how place spirituality can transform traumatic experiences (Sternberg, Engineer, & Oberman, 2019) and how it is defined in world religions (Budhhism: Basu, 2019; Christianity: Counted & Watts, 2017; Islam: Latifa, Hidayat, & Sodiq, 2019). This psychological perspective on religion and place has also been critiqued by Brulin and Granqvist (2018) who argue against the preposition of āplaceā as a perceptual object of attachment in everyday life.
Despite recent literature unifying the psychology of religion and place, there is still a lack of empirical investigation of the topic, and of valid measurement tools for assessing this phenomenon in psychology. We hope that this book will spark interest in the topic and create a new wave of discussion about the psychology of religion and place. We believe that religion and place should be approached from an integrative psychological perspective, though such an approach should not ignore perspectives from other areas such as sociology, geography, theology and anthropology. Instead, our understanding of religion and place should be enriched from these other perspectives, to avoid a narrowly defined psychology. In line with the title of the book, our main focus is to expand on how psychological theories and methodologies can help us understand religion and place, shaping emerging perspectives on a broadly conceived psychology that acknowledges and builds on existing perspectives.
Interdisciplinary Engagement
The study of the psychology of religion and place creates an interdisciplinary space for both religion and place scholars. We believe that such collaboration is necessary for the different disciplines involved to understand each other better. A religious phenomenon cannot be adequately captured without the application of place theory, because place experiences are often integral to meaningful spiritual encounters that religion scholars study. Equally, the psychology of religion should not be left out of the psychological stu...