What is American exceptionalism? Definitions abound, often because authors confuse the objective and subjective definitions of it. Looking at American exceptionalism as a national identity, I argue that it is made up of three important ideas. Each idea represents a different aspect of the perceived historic significance of the United States and inspires a certain kind of foreign policy, all of which are internationalist in orientation. First is the idea that the United States is distinct from the Old World; second, that it has a special and unique role to play in world history; and third, that the United States will resist the laws of history (meaning that it will rise to great power status yet it will not fall, as all previous republics have).16 These three aspects have important consequences for how the United States relates to the rest of the world. Let us briefly examine them.
I The distinction
The significance of seeing “America” as “distinct” is not that it denotes the United States as different from the rest of the world; it is that it invokes a normative hierarchy of nations on which the United States sits atop. In other words, American exceptionalism entails viewing the United States as better than all other nations. This is different from patriotism.17 “Our country has always been exceptional,” writes the National Review Online:
It is freer, more individualistic, more democratic, and more open and dynamic than any other nation on earth. These qualities are the bequest of our Founding and of our cultural heritage. They have always marked America as special, with a unique role and mission in the world: as a model of ordered liberty and self-government and as an exemplar of freedom and a vindicator of it, through persuasion when possible and force of arms when absolutely necessary.18
If one does not believe that American exceptionalism means better rather than different, one’s Americanness is open to questioning. This is the significance of the criticism Obama encountered after his answer to the question posed to him in France in 2009. Obama’s answer seemed to convey an understanding of American exceptionalism as a subjective idea, not as an objective fact. Contrasting a belief in American exceptionalism with self-understandings found in other nations such as Britain and Greece, meant the negation of the – seemingly – objective nature of American exceptionalism.
The identity-affirming power of seeing the United States as better rather than different is something that can be traced back throughout American history. In an editorial in the United States Journal on October 18, 1845, one finds this optimistic assessment: “we, the American people, are the most independent, intelligent, moral and happy people on the face of the earth.” In 1935, surveying the power of American nationalism in the nineteenth century, historian Albert K. Weinberg wrote that the “philosophy of American nationalism developed a belief incongruous with the equalitarianism of democracy – the belief that, however equal men might be at birth, Americans had become subsequently a super-people.”19 Weinberg was studying “manifest destiny,” an idea that provided the ideational fuel for the vast continental empire that the United States claimed for itself from 1787 to 1867. Manifest destiny, in fact, constituted the nineteenth century version of seventeenth and eighteenth century American exceptionalism, as the next chapter chronicles.20 The debate over manifest destiny and continental expansion seen in the 1830s would also foreshadow later debates and rhetoric on why the United States must first obtain a commercial empire on the sea, and later, world power status.
Initially, the distinction of “America” was its relative superiority to Europe. The animating idea of the first part of the definition of American exceptionalism is that the New World superseded the Old. Indeed, Thomas Jefferson had thought that there was, in effect, a different code of natural law governing the two worlds, Old and New:
I strongly suspect that our geographical peculiarities may call for a different code of natural law to govern relations with other nations from that which the conditions of Europe have given rise to there.21
American exceptionalism entails believing that the founding of the United States inaugurated a new era in world history, where a completely new and different political entity entered the world stage. This belief in U.S. distinction is powerful, persistent, and pervasive and as alive today as it was in early U.S. history. Polling shows that Americans display the highest degree of national pride among Western democracies. Researchers at the University of Chicago reported that before the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 90 percent of the Americans surveyed agreed with the statement, “I would rather be a citizen of America than of any other country in the world.”22 The World Values Survey of 2001 reported more than 70 percent of those surveyed declaring themselves “very proud” to be ...