After identifying the âperceivedâ boundaries of the âMiddle Eastâ, according to the context of this study, this chapter highlights the reasons for the strategic importance of the Middle East from a Western perspective, before and after 9/11. It also reveals differences in perception between the United States and Western European countries â the twin pillars of the North Atlantic Alliance â with regards to the necessity of internal stability in the Middle East. Thereafter, focus is given to tracing the causes of instability in the Middle East region that has produced one of the most violent acts of terrorism in modern history. To reach this end, the chapter reviews recent international and regional studies that indicate a lack of proper development and adequate modernisation in the Middle East region.
The concept of the Middle East
Despite the fact that the Middle East region has been the main concern of recent world politics in general, and in the post-9/11 years in particular, the label of âthe Middle Eastâ has not been given clear definition or its boundaries established. This ambiguity has increased, perhaps doubled, with the introduction of the concept of âthe Greater Middle Eastâ coined simultaneously with the launching of the American initiative for the Middle East that is analysed and discussed in this chapter. What was understood, although not confirmed, by this concept is a vast area stretching from Afghanistan to Morocco, although the Middle East region is, undoubtedly, full of contradictions and diversity. Certainly, the only tie that can bind these countries is that the majority of their populations belong to Islam. Not surprisingly, the issue of defining the boundaries of the Middle East region, whether it is âGreaterâ or not, has been open to debate in recent years.
To start with, the Encyclopaedia Britannica1 defines the Middle East as âThe lands around the Southern and Eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from Morocco to the Arabian Peninsula and Iran and sometimes beyond. The central part of this general area was formerly called the Near Eastâ.
Wikipedia2 outlines that:
Hansen clarifies that:
He further explains that âUni-polarity is not a static state of affairs, and the continuously changing sub-systemic relations of strength as well as the changes in the US agenda and priorities may have affects on pattern of conflict and cooperation, and issues in the Middle Eastâ.4
Abi-Aad and Grenon define the Middle East as âStretching from Egypt to Iran and from Turkey to Yemen; specifically, this includes, in addition to these four border countries, Bahrain, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, the Palestinian territories (West Bank and Gaza Strip), Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and the United Arab Emiratesâ.5
Kamrava indicates that:
Choueiri explains that:
Hoddad indicates that:
This long-standing debate has become more complicated with the emergence of the concept of the âBroaderâ or âGreaterâ Middle East. Kemp and Harkavy define the âGreater Middle Eastâ as the region that includes four major conflicts: the ArabâIsraeli conflict, conflict in the Persian Gulf, conflict in the Caspian Basin, and conflict in South Asia.9
Hubel and Kaim underline that:
Fouskas and Gokay argue that:
Finally, Russell summaries the current debate, mentioning that âThe region of the world that encompasses the Middle East and South Asia is more easily captured by the concept of the Greater Middle East region, even if the concept is debatable by geographersâ.12 He further explains, âThe Greater Middle East is arguably the most politically and militarily volatile of the world. The region is periodically swept with convulsions of war. The fallout from these conflicts affects the security of major states, Russia, China, and the United States that lie outside the regionâ.13
Within this context, it is noticeable that the terms âBroaderâ, âWiderâ, or even âGreaterâ Middle East have appeared in various statements and declarations issued by the successive summits of the North Atlantic Alliance. All these statements have carried a clear message confirming the utmost importance of the Middle East for calculations regarding the stability and security of Euro-Atlantic territories. Importantly, and perhaps interestingly, the North Atlantic Alliance itself does not propose a clear definition of what is meant exactly by âthe Middle Eastâ.
In this regard, Bin in interview admits that:
Having reviewed all these arguments and definitions about the Middle East, the conclusion could be reached that there are various, perhaps contradicting, views about what is meant exactly by the term âMiddle Eastâ. These differences about drawing its real or imaginary boundaries, with inclusion and/or exclusion of some countries according to political visions, confirm that the âtermâ has long been politicised, especially post-9/11. The Middle East is no longer a mere geographical identity, but a political concept that encompasses various pressing security concerns. These security concerns are being identified or perceived by the great powers and they are still an area of contention. Understandably, NATO has preferred to use this term in an ambiguous formula in its recent documents, for instance, the declaration of the 2004 Istanbul Summit, to overcome or hide existing differences among allies.
This book holds the view that the Middle East region extends from Morocco in the West to the Gulf States in the East. More clearly, it encompasses the Arab countries and Israel. The reasoning is that NATO has shown, in practice, more interest in the Middle East region and these boundaries. After analysing its documents, one could recognise that the Middle East, in NATOâs literature, includes three main areas: first, the group of South Mediterranean countries, or what is commonly known as North Africa countries (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania); second, the group that consists of Jordan, Israel and Egypt; and finally, the group that encompasses the Gulf areas. Sometimes Iran is included because of tensions regarding its nuclear programme and its possible repercussions for the region. However, as is clarified by this research, NATO has no role regarding this crisis, at least for the time being. Likewise, NATOâs current role in Afghanistan is sometimes perceived as an integral part of NATOâs involvement in Middle Eastern affairs, although this mission is not connected, by any means, to NATOâs current endeavour in this specific area, which is the main theme of this research, as is explained below.
What is more, it is noticeable that the majority of literature that has emerged in recent years on the Middle East has been focused on Arab countries. For example, Makiya writes, âWe must keep in mind that those attacks, i.e. the events of 9/11, were conceived and executed by Arabs, not by Afghans, Pakistanis, or Muslims in general. Arabs constitute less than 20 per cent of the worldâs Muslim population. Yet some would tar the whole Muslim world with the problems of its Arab componentsâ.15
The argument of Makiya, who was among the proponents of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, shows how influential the hostile perception towards âthe Arab componentâ of the Muslim world has had its effects on the post-9/11 US policy, which is reviewed in Chapter 5.
Even if the ânewâ Middle East means the Arab world, with the exception of the State of Israel, generalisation and ignoring the specificities of each country could be misleading. Factually, each country in the Middle East region has its own peculiarities, circumstances and calculations. Consequently, the national interest of one country may sometimes differ or contradict with the otherâs interests. In this regard, Halliday argues that:
Previously, the same scholar warned that generalisation about the region is more risky if it is linked to hopes, or anticipation, of a new era, advising that âwe should long ago have abandoned any temptation to see the region as a single political or socio-economic whole, etcâ.17 Rabasa also stresses that the Arab world is by no means monolithic, for example, âEgyptian sensibilities, rooted in the tradition of one of the worldâs oldest civilisat...