A new world order
The regime designed at the Bretton Woods Conference influenced international finance through the restriction of international capital flows and the marginalisation of the banking and financial sector in favour of the industrial one. This comprehensively critical attitude towards finance and financiers, towards banks and bankers, was reflected in the structure and strategies of banks in Europe.
In the immediate post-war years, international capital flows took the form of direct investment (FDI) by multinational firms. This form of capital âwas an instrument of marginal financial importance, for it was neither mediated by banks nor traded on marketsâ.1 Thus the role of banking institutions was crucially dwarfed.
The system of checks and balances built at the Bretton Woods Conference was designed to insulate domestic policies from external interference and facilitate the process of post-war reconstruction. As Rawi Abdelal summarised:
Capital was to be controlled, and with an important purpose: governments were supposed to be autonomous from market forces, free to pursue expansionary monetary and fiscal policies without endangering their exchange-rate commitments or suffering the outflow of capital in search of a higher rate of interest or a lower rate of inflation. Because almost every country would be committed to fixed exchange rates, the regulation of international finance was the only way to provide some measure of autonomy for domestic policymakers [emphasis added].2
Despite the âmythologyâ surrounding Bretton Woods (the âconference setting, the creative minds, and the visionary taskâ3), the regime proved to be short-lived. The first cracks in the financially restrictive order devised in New Hampshire had already started to appear in the mid-to-late 1950s when dollar deposits held in Europe were not reinvested in the US but on the Continent, becoming Eurodollars (or continental dollars) â in the words of Howard M. Wachtel âthe first truly supranational form of moneyâ.4 The origins of this market are clouded in mystery and many explanations have been put forward to justify its existence. We can safely posit that the existence of the Eurodollar market depended on mutual advantages to the final borrowers, to the financial intermediaries and to the final owners.
The phenomenon in itself was not revolutionary. Until the First World War, it had been customary to hold foreign currencies outside their country of origin. What was new was the scale of the phenomenon. As reported in the BIS Annual Report of 1964:
Since the mid-1950s, and especially since Europeâs return to external convertibility at the end of 1958, the foreign currency business of banks in Europe and elsewhere has undergone a very considerable expansion. Such business is not in itself new. But banks have been taking deposits and making loans in currencies other than their local currency on a much larger scale than before; and in the process there has also emerged an efficient interbank market in US dollar and other foreign currency deposits, helping to channel short-term funds internationally from lenders to borrowers [emphasis added].5
The US market represented the preferred investment market. Consequently, foreign governments, companies and international institutions relied on the US to get the financing they needed, â[bonds] issued in New York by certain European countries were, to a large extent, subscribed by residents of those countriesâ.6 It was estimated that around 75 per cent of the bonds issued in New York were subscribed from outside the United States. This practice was interrupted in 1963 when the US market was effectively closed to foreign borrowers as a result of the introduction of a series of restrictive measures on foreign financing, starting with the Interest Equalization Tax (IET) in July, which was designed to reduce the appeal of foreign bonds and equities to American investors by raising their cost (only Canadian and LDCs securities were exempted). The rates of the excise tax ranged from a low of 1.05 per cent of the value of the security for a debt obligation with a term to maturity of between 1 and 1ÂŒ years, to 15 per cent on debt obligations with a term to maturity greater than 28Âœ years. The tax on foreign stocks was 15 per cent.7
Following the implementation of the IET, the total number of issues subject to the IET fell from US$569 million in 1963 to US$26 million in 1964.8 In this context it did not take much for a new market to develop in Europe, particularly in London, where monetary authorities and bankers were looking to reposition the City as the truly international capital market it had once been.
London welcomed the Eurodollar market as a way to compensate for the declining role of sterling as an international settlement currency and the relative decline of Britainâs economic fortunes compared to its continental partners who were experiencing a so-called âGolden Ageâ. In October 1962, the Governor of the Bank of England, Rowland Baring, remarked that âthe City once again might well provide an international capital marketâ. Sir George Bolton of the Bank of London and South America (BOLSA), the most active bank in the early years of the Eurodollar market, said very clearly during a seminar at Kingâs College, Cambridge, that the greatest fear amongst British financiers after the Second World War was that âthe failure of the sterling to survive as an international currency ⊠would reduce London to a backwaterâ.9
Luckily for him and the City of London, his fears proved to be unfounded. Between 1963 and 1969, the number of banks and other institutions operating in the foreign currency business in the UK increased from 132 to 193. As reported by the Bank of England, between the end of 1963 and the end of 1965 UK banksâ gross foreign currency liabilities to overseas residents âincreased by over 25 per cent per annumâ. From the end of 1965 to the end of 1968, they increased by 50 per cent per year.10
The Eurodollar market gradually modified the corporate strategies of all the major European banks. However, before the revival of the late 1960s and, in particular, the early 1970s, European banking went through a long phase of retreat inside local boundaries. Almost all major commercial banks severed the ties they had created during the first phase of financial globalisation and once again became domestic banks with a limited array of low risk products. This state of affairs came to be epitomised by the legendary â3â6â3 ruleâ: bankers were borrowing at 3 per cent, lending at 6 and were on the golf course by 3 p.m. Maybe this anecdote should be considered more as a legend than a trustworthy representation of banking practices of the immediate post-war years, but, as we know, legends more often than not contain some elements of truth. As financial historian, Youssef Cassis, has argued: âTaken in isolation, the 1950s were not a particularly propitious time for European banksâ.11
All across Europe a wave of reforms and regulations fettered the banking and financial sector. In France, the four major banks were nationalised in 1945: the reconstruction was firmly in the hands of the government as was the credit mechanism, as the Banque de France was nationalised too. In Britain, the Bank of England was nationalised in 1946, while the Big Five (Barclays Bank, Lloyds Bank, Midland Bank, National Provincial Bank and Westminster Bank), despite remaining de jure independent, were de facto largely influenced by the imperatives of the Treasury. As Cassis noted: âThey received precise instructions from the Treasury concerning not only their liquidity but also their lending priorities, especially as far as manufacturing investment and the support of exports were concernedâ.12
As we hinted above, the implication of such policies, attitudes and ideas was that banking practices in Europe in the post-war period were relegated to domestic borders and to what would now be considered conservative practices aimed at making the banking sector a tool in the hands of European reconstruction.13 Referring to the French banking sector, Joel MĂ©tais pointed out that âafter the Second World War foreign expansion retained a low profile until the turn of the 1970sâ.14
We are now going to analyse the world of Bretton Woods, its ideological foundations and its impact on the European banking and financial sector. Then we will describe the early years of the Euromarket by looking at its origins, its mechanisms and its impact on the world financial system. Finally, we will study banking strategies under the Bretton Woods regime in order to have a comprehensive view of the banking world in Europe before the turbulent events of the 1970s.