Introduction to Part I
Setting the stage
Pauline Stoltz
Bridging the gap between academia and activism is an old theme in feminist theory and practice. How can (feminist) academic research be useful in human rights law work and public policy debates? This section starts with two chapters providing personal narratives of women who are both well-known academics and controversial activists in their respective societies. Ai Xiaoming is a professor of Chinese Language and Literature in China, a documentary film-maker and a womenâs rights activist. Tiina Rosenberg is professor of Gender Studies in Sweden, queer activist and co-founder of the political party âFeminist Initiativeâ, a party that she recently left.
The interviews illustrate some of the current obstacles faced by feminist activists in China and Sweden in their efforts to obtain social change and gender equality. Rosenberg and Ai, as well as human rights lawyer Sharon Hom in the third chapter, are deeply embedded in specific local struggles and face different socio-political realities. They also often face similar obstacles. Challenging prescribed gender roles and power relations is not only seen as upsetting to the political establishment and society at large, but can also be difficult to accept for more traditional women activists. Both Ai and Rosenberg have thus found themselves the targets of harassmentâas activists and public intellectualsâby different groups in their respective societies.
What is controversial may differ between respective societies and may also differ over time. The two interviews show that how we react to injustices and what strategies we use to fight them depend on individual choices as well as upon our socio-political context. Both Rosenberg and Ai made a deliberate decision to leave the relatively peaceful confines of academia for political struggles on other arenas. Whereas Rosenberg became disillusioned by the party political arena and decided to take part in public debate in other ways, Ai has continued her activism by making documentaries and signing charters such as Charter 08 calling for political and democratic reform, while increasingly finding herself a target of official harassment.
Ai, Rosenberg and Hom not only take part in local struggles, but are also part of transnational and global communities of feminist activists. This gives shape and support to both their theoretical and their practical and political endeavours. The relations between local, transnational and global expressions of feminism are discussed in all four contributions in this part of the book.
Hom has also traversed the academic and the political in her different roles as legal scholar, participant in legal training activities and, currently, as executive head of Human Rights in China, an international NGO working for human rights in China. Her experiences confirm Siimâs more theoretical discussions on transnational feminism in Chapter 4. Events such as the NGO Forum at the 1995 UN intergovernmental Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing create possibilities for women activists to come together and put human rights on the political agenda. The challenge is to concurrently develop strategies for social change that are sensitive to inequalities between women, such as differences in economic and political resources, to power structures in gender relations which are due to diversities in identities and belongings, as well as to different political realities in respective societies.
Siim uses the international womenâs movement for womenâs rights as human rights as a paradigmatic case through which both the potentials and problems of transnational feminism can be discussed. She discusses how political globalisation processes have enabled feminists to influence the public agenda at the international level (if only to a certain extent).
The differences between women, notably in terms of the intersections of gender and âraceâ, have been the focus of many feminist debates. Womenâs rights can be discussed as human rights, but the idea of a relatively coherent notion of âwomenâ as a crucial element of the raison dâĂȘtre of feminist politics is not self-evident. This has been a sensitive issue, as feminist scholars ultimately share a commitment to social change which demands a strong relationship between feminist theory and practice. We can ask then how the universality of human rights can be combined with the particularity of our different lives. The debate concerns the frustration over an impasse which could be described as a paradox of visibility. In order to make claims which enable feminists to visualise women, a definition of âwomenâ is made which is automatically exclusionary in itself. Certain differences between women are often neglected and ignored; thereby certain groups of women are always excluded (Stoltz 2000:32).
As we will see in Part II of this book, this dilemma becomes particularly obvious when discussing the positions of migrant women in society. The necessity to rethink notions of citizenship beyond the nation state has become increasingly pressing in both China and the Nordic countries. Feminist debates about globalisation and womenâs rights have raised critical questions about the power and authority of different categories of women to represent themselves in local, national and global struggles for equality and justice. This can be recognised in the political and legal tensions between state-based citizenship and human rights. These tensions lead Siim to focus on the ways in which the globalisation of rights necessitates a rethinking of the notion of citizenship beyond the nation state. She suggests that a multi-layered notion of citizenship that connects rights and duties at different levels provides a good starting point for developing a transnational approach to both citizenship and democracy.
The authors in this section encourage us to bridge theory, practice, academia and activism in the field of gender equality, citizenship and human rights. The fact that their insights are drawn from different socio-political realities shows how important it is to contextualise current debates on these three issues. The importance of an intersectional approach also becomes obvious. The different chapters clearly show not only how difficult work for gender equality is, but also the many similarities and common concerns feminist activists in China and the Nordic societies share with each other.
Reference
Stoltz, P. (2000) About Being (T)here and Making a Difference. Black Women and the Paradox of Visibility, Lund Political Studies 115, Lund: Lund University, Department of Political Science.
1
âIt is the people who serve the governmentâ
Interview with Ai Xiaoming
Cecilia Milwertz
Ai Xiaoming is a feminist academic and human rights activist. She is Professor in the Department of Chinese Language and Literature, and initiator and head of the Sex/Gender Education Forum at the Sun Yat-sen (Zhongshan) University in Guangdong Province. Professor Ai is an avid supporter of struggles to claim the rights of the oppressed, discriminated and marginalized. She is an outspoken critic of injustice, and she uses documentary films as a central medium in her work. The first film she was involved in was the documentary âThe Vagina Monologues: Stories from Chinaâ about the staging of the play âThe Vagina Monologuesâ at her university. She arranged for the translation of the play into Chinese together with the Stop Domestic Violence Network, an NGO, and she brought together students and fellow teachers to set up the performance. The documentary film showed how the performance was used to start discussions with audiences to critically reflect on dominant gender roles and relations. The majority of Professor Aiâs films document the lives of ordinary people in China. They include topics such as the stmggles of villagers fighting against a corrupt village director, the lives of people living with HIV/AIDS, and the efforts of a mother insisting on an investigation of what the police had defined as her daughterâs natural death. Professor Ai also leads a film-making programme for NGOs. This interview took place as an email exchange in July-August 2007 (For previous interviews with Ai Xiaoming in English, see Thornham 2008 and Wang 2005).
CECILIA MILWERTZ (CM): The slogan âServe the peopleâ used to be prominently visible in huge characters on the inner and outer walls of public buildings. Smaller versions of the slogan were printed on everyday items such as cups and canvas bags. Since the economic reforms of 1978, advertisements for a huge variety of consumer goods rather than political slogans are now displayed in public spaces. In your poem you have used the slogan in relation to the Taishi village case in Guangdong province in which villagers accused the village committee director of corruption. They requested his dismissal and launched a petition to elect a new director. Following the arrest of villagers and their legal advisors, government commitment to grassroots democracy was seriously questioned. Why do you invoke Chairman Mao and a slogan that derives from the Maoist period of the Peopleâs Republic of China (1949â78) in relation to the Taishi village case that took place in 2005?
AI XIAOMING (AXM): The poem was printed on the back cover of the documentary Taishi Village (Ai 2005). Most often the back cover of a documentary provides a short text describing the content of the film. However, we couldnât write one for this film because the Taishi Village election had become a highly sensitive issue in Guangdong province and no public discussion was permitted. Therefore, I wrote a text in the format of the lyrics of a pop song. I had just started editing the film when I wrote down these sentences and they actually correspond to our editing clues. âServe the peopleâ is such a popular saying from Mao Zedong that all government officials are familiar with it. Unfortunately, in reality, government officials are used to being served by people rather than vice versa. In other words, it is the people who serve the government. Any disobedience from people is regarded as anti-government activity and as a serious political crime.
During the Taishi elections, the local government agreed to initiate impeachment procedures and they came to the village, demonstrating an attempt to âserve the peopleâ. But how could they âserve the peopleâ by sending police armed with high-pressure water hoses against the people? I had to ask the question: have you ever realized the civiliansâ sufferings when you claim you âserve the peopleâ?
CM: Your keynote âspeechâ at the Second Sino-Nordic Women and Gender Studies Conference, held in Sweden in August 2005, consisted of a showing of the first three parts of the documentary film Garden in Heaven on the Huang Jing case of date rape (Ai and Hu 2005). I would like to talk about your work as an academic and activist, taking this case as a starting point and moving back to previous cases and forward to other cases you have been involved in since then. I know that your view is that womenâs studies are closely linked to social activism in the sense that an important feminist goal is to transform society and eliminate injustice. Your position is that you cannot teach theories of subordination and gender discrimination in your classes at university and then not follow up in practice outside of the classroom. You have to actively oppose injustices that are taking place in society. So I would like to ask you how it is possible to be as openly confrontational in the Chinese political context as you are? How do you dare to stand up and voice your opinion so clearly? We have heard of others who have documented suffering and injustices of the people in rural China. Take for instance the book Will the Boat Sink the Water?: The Life of Chinese Peasants by Chen Guidi and Wu Chuntao (2006). The book was banned and led to legal prosecution of the authors; additionally one of the authors lost his job. How is it possible for you to engage in activism that is so directly political and confrontational?
AXM: The Sun Zhigang case was my first encounter with public affairs.
[In 2003 the young migrant Sun Zhigang was beaten to death by police in Guangzhou. The case led to the abolishment of the Detention and Repatriation regulations. See Pan 2008 for a vivid description of the case.]