Philosophers established theories of play to provide an understanding of the nature of children's play behavior. They categorized them into classical and modern theories of play. Classical theories surfaced in the nineteenth century and continued throughout the twentieth century, whereas modern and cognitive theories emerged after 1920. Classical theories explain the rationale for play, whereas modern theories justify the developmentally appropriate practices of play. The modern theories of play are based on theoretical concepts and results from empirical studies that offer an understanding of the children's play, in particular the psychoanalytic and cognitive theories of play. Another important theory is the one on culture.
Culture is ‘an ongoing pattern of life, characterizing a society at a particular stage in its development or at a given point in history’ (Coon & Mitterer, 2008, p. 5). In a pluralistic society, children need to increase their knowledge, become more culturally conscious, know the various cultural values and be responsive to cultural differentiations (López & Mulnix, 2004). Children need to learn diverse systems of values to develop their cultural perspectives; therefore, cultural theory of play will be discussed. These theories are reviewed in the sections below.
CLASSICAL THEORIES
The resemblance in the play of children and some animal species motivated several philosophers to develop their theories of play based on Charles Darwin's (1859) publication The Origin of Species. They used Darwinian and other evolutionary theories to explain play instead of using observations. In the nineteenth century, theories of play surfaced to provide a rationale for the children's play. They provide the reasons (e.g., early development, foundation, basis) and functions (e.g., intention, scheme, motive reason) for play. These theories are the (1) Surplus Energy, (2) Recreational or Relaxation, (3) Practice or Pre-exercise and (4) Recapitulation theories.
The Surplus Energy Theory
The surplus energy theory indicates that humans are naturally active. They accumulate the energy that they need for basic survival; they disperse any excess energy through pointless pleasure. For example, when children are sitting still for a long time, they develop surplus or extra energy. Children begin to fidget, become restless and display off-task behaviors, which suggest that children need to engage in a physical activity (such as jumping, running, skipping) to help them ‘let off steam'.
The surplus energy theory is well known and was initially based on the work of the German philosopher J. C. Friedreich von Schiller (1759–1805) and later the work of English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820–1903). They showed the similarity between human and nonhuman play. Friedreich Schiller (the eighteenth-century German poet, historian and philosopher) first proposed the surplus energy theory, basing it on the assumption that after meeting basic survival needs, children use play to release any organism of ‘excess energy’ (Schiller, 1794/1991). Schiller's theory of play indicates that animals develop more energy than they need to survive and expend spare (surplus) energy through play. Both human and nonhuman animals need to get rid of surplus energy.
The British philosopher Herbert Spenser (1820–1903) based the surplus energy theory of play on Darwin's theory of evolution. For instance, higher species of animals play more than lower species of animals. Schiller believed that play related to ‘surplus energy’ whereas Spenser assumed that it was a ‘superfluous activity'. Neither of these philosophers considered play to be indispensable for human development. Instead, both assumed that it was a means that assisted individuals to balance their energy.
Recreational or Relaxation Theory
Recreational or relaxation theory is the reverse of surplus energy theory (Lazarus, 1883). This theory indicates that play replenishes energy. When individuals have used up their energy, they need to search for ways to refresh and restore their physical and psychological energy. Recreational or relaxation theory refers to the individuals’ restoration of energy during play. German poet Moritz Lazarus (1883) viewed play as the opposite of work, when individuals restore the energy that they used during work. Play is a recreational endeavor (Lazarus, 1883) or a behavior pattern that occurs when individuals need to relax (Patrick, 1916).
Practice or Pre-exercise Theory
Practice or pre-exercise theory was developed by Karl Groos (1898, 1901). During play, children practice the required behavior for later survival. This theory acknowledges many traditions and purposes for children's play in adult games, rituals and competitions. Play stimulates children to replicate and implement adult roles that prepare them for adulthood and their future. For instance, when children act out their parents’ roles in dramatic play, they are practicing the roles that they will assume as adults in the future. Several constructivist theories that focus on children's intellectual functioning support this theory (Piaget, 1962, 1985).
Recapitulation Theory
G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924), an American psychologist, used Charles Darwin's theory of evolution as a source for his recapitulation theory. The theory presumes that the individual's development recreates the species’ development. It considers that activities that recreate historical events (e.g., hunting, throwing games, hide and seek, chasing) are intrinsically gratifying. This theory declares that play is not an activity that needs future instinctual skills but one that replaces the children's unwarranted instinctual skills. Based on the recapitulation theory, ‘Each child passes through a series of play stages corresponding to and recapitulating the cultural stages in the development of the race’ (Essays, UK, 2013, no page number). According to Hall (1906), human beings start at the embryo stage and move through evolutionary stages that are the equivalent of the development of the human species. Throughout such a sequence children act out developmental stages (such as animal, savage, tribal member) in their play, which provides children a catharsis that releases them from any primitive impulses that are unacceptable in the present society.
Comparison of Classical Theories
The classical theories of play are divided into (1) surplus energy theory with recreational/relaxation theory and (2) practice/pre-exercise theory with recapitulation theory. Table 1.1 provides a summary of these theories.
Source: Saracho, 2012, p. 33
Each pair of theories contradicts each other on how play utilizes energy or manages instincts. The surplus energy and recreational/relaxation theories describe how play deals with energy. One theory diminishes excess energy, while the other refurb...
