International Perspectives on Gender and Higher Education

Student Access and Success

Christine Fontanini, K.M. Joshi, Saeed Paivandi, Christine Fontanini, K.M. Joshi, Saeed Paivandi

• Editorial: Emerald Publishing Limited
• Año: 2020
• ISBN:
  9781839098888
• Categoría: Didattica
• Categoría: Istruzione superiore

Despite improved access to higher education for women, the distribution of women and men varies considerably between different fields of study. The chapters in this edited collection explore the participation status of women in higher education across the varying socio-economic and sociological backgrounds observed in different countries and regions.
Diving into the differing social and state intervention policies, individual motives of participation and additional gender inequalities including regional and ethnic disparities, this book offers readers a better understanding of the drivers of gendered trends in higher education, such as the evidently low presence of women in certain scientific and technical disciplines. The analysis focuses on the social construction of gender differences, as well as the roles played by the economy, culture, religion, legal background, and the internal dynamics of society. Ultimately, this book provides a comprehensive overview of recent developments concerning the presence of women in higher education in both developed and developing countries, resulting in a clear picture of the current situation, and how the future might look.

Chapter 1

A Difficult Balance: Policies on Gender Imbalances in the Higher Education Student Population in Flanders

Kurt De Wit and Tom Bekers

Abstract

In this chapter, we explore gender inequalities in higher education in Flanders, with a focus on the contemporary situation of students in higher education. We first describe the current situation in Flemish higher education, thereby distinguishing between type of institution, field of study, and level of educational attainment. Then we go into the public policy on gender issues and the measures the government has taken to reduce gender inequalities in the student population. Third, we turn our attention to the level of the higher education institutions and the gender policies they have put in place. We take stock of some of the initiatives taken and the effects they have (or have not) had. We give some specific examples from KU Leuven, in order to provide a detailed account of the issues that are at stake when tackling gender inequality with regard to students in higher education. To round up the chapter, a critical conclusion is drawn on the persistence of gender inequality in higher education and the different ways it keeps on challenging higher education policy in Flanders.

Keywords: Gender; inequality; students; higher education; Flanders; policy

1. Introduction

Gender gaps in higher education have over the years been documented extensively. With regard to the entrance of students to higher education, in general, women have reversed the gap in OECD countries and their share of first-time new entrants is now larger than that of men (OECD, 2019). This does however not mean that gender differences are no longer important in higher education. The share of women is unevenly distributed in different fields of study, with an underrepresentation in STEM and an overrepresentation in health and welfare, and tends to decline with the education level (highest share in short cycle programs below bachelor level, lowest share in programs at master level, and underrepresentation at the doctoral level; OECD, 2019). Conversely, when it comes to completion rates, it is the men who are doing worse, and this is true across all OECD countries (OECD, 2019).

The situation in Flanders, i.e., the Dutch-speaking community of Belgium, on the whole follows the same patterns. Women make up 55% of the total enrollments in higher education, with their share declining according to the education level, and with a clear underrepresentation in STEM fields of study (Ministerie van Onderwijs en Vorming, 2018a). When in higher education, women do better than men, attaining 58% of bachelor and master degrees (Ministerie van Onderwijs en Vorming, 2018b).

In this chapter, we explore gender inequalities in higher education in Flanders. We focus on the contemporary situation of students in higher education. We first describe the current situation in Flemish higher education, thereby distinguishing between type of institution, field of study, and level of educational attainment. Then we go into the public policy on gender issues and the measures the government has taken to reduce gender inequalities in the student population. Third, we turn our attention to the level of the higher education institutions and the gender policies they have put in place. We take stock of some of the initiatives taken and the effects they have (or have not) had. We give some specific examples from KU Leuven, in order to provide a detailed account of the issues that are at stake when tackling gender inequality with regard to students in higher education. To round up the chapter, a critical conclusion is drawn on the persistence of gender inequality in higher education and the different ways it keeps on challenging higher education policy in Flanders.

2. The Current Situation in Flanders

The higher education system in Flanders is in essence a binary system consisting of universities and universities of applied sciences. In recent years, a number of changes took place within this structure: some study programs were transferred from the universities of applied sciences to the universities, teacher training programs in adult education institutions were replaced by master programs at universities and universities of applied sciences, and study programs on ISCED level 5 were introduced in universities of applied sciences. These changes have however not changed the overall gender balance in higher education with women currently making up 55% of total enrollments and earning 58% of degrees (Ministerie van Onderwijs en Vorming, 2018a, 2018b) as stated in the introduction. In that sense, the democratization in HE might seem completed in terms of gender. But these overall figures hide many imbalances between types of institutions (universities vs universities of applied sciences), fields of study (STEM vs others), and levels of educational attainment (ISCED levels 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Female students are in the majority in both universities and universities of applied sciences in the academic year 2019–2020 (overall figures for ISCED levels 5, 6, and 7 combined). In universities, their share is 54%, in universities of applied sciences it amounts to 56% (AHOVOKS, 2020). In universities, the share of female students was larger than that of men for the first time in the academic year 1996–1997, whereas it was always larger at universities of applied sciences (Ministerie van Onderwijs en Vorming, 2019). This difference is related to the educational offering of both types of institutions, i.e., the different fields of study in which they offer study programs and also the different levels at which they offer these programs (ISCED levels 5 and 6 at universities of applied sciences, ISCED levels 6, 7, and 8 at universities).

Regarding fields of study, most attention has recently been directed at STEM, in Flanders as well as internationally. STEM stands for “science, technology, engineering, mathematics.” Note that the definition of what constitutes a STEM study program can differ between different sources. In the so-called STEM Monitor (Departement Onderwijs en Vorming, 2019), it is explained that differences between OECD figures and Flemish figures stem from the fact that in Flanders not only STEM “in the strict sense” is considered but also “study programs with a STEM component,” for example, biomedical sciences (classified internationally in “health”), traffic engineering (“transport”), or medical imaging (“health”). But all figures point in the same direction: in the STEM fields of study, girls are clearly underrepresented with regard to enrollments as well as the number of graduates – while labor market demand for graduates in these fields is high (Vlaamse Regering, 2012). In recent years, the share of females in STEM study programs has increased to around 24% in professional bachelor programs (at universities of applied sciences) and 39% in academic bachelor programs (at universities; Departement Onderwijs en Vorming, 2019). The share in professional bachelor programs has however not been a steady increase. Moreover, the study efficiency in these programs has declined (Departement Onderwijs en Vorming, 2019). The number of female graduates in all STEM bachelor and master programs is slowly increasing and now amounts to one-third of STEM graduates in Flanders (Departement Onderwijs en Vorming, 2019).

Above it was already hinted at that the issue of gender balance plays out differently at different ISCED levels. At ISCED level 5, 45% of enrollments are by female students (AHOVOKS, 2020). At ISCED level 6, Flanders differentiates between professional bachelor programs (with a vocational purpose) at universities of applied sciences and academic bachelor programs (as preparation for entering a master program) at universities. The student population in professional bachelor programs is 58% female, while this is 53% in academic bachelor programs. In master programs, the share of female students is 55% (AHOVOKS, 2020). When looking at the level of the doctorate, however, the ratio is turned the other way round, with 45% of doctorates awarded to women (in 2017–2018) and 55% to men (ECOOM, 2019).

This sudden change from a majority of women in master programs to a majority of men in doctoral programs is a first “leak” in what is known as the “leaky pipeline”: the share of women decreases in each further phase of the academic career. In 2019, 39% of the postdoc positions in Flanders were held by women, as were 37% of the (tenure track) assistant professor positions, 31% of the associate professor positions, 26% of the professorships, and 17% of full professors (in FTE; VLIR, 2019). Although the share of women in all these positions is increasing steadily, the change is very slow. It should be borne in mind that for some faculties and disciplines, it is not self-evident to remedy the “leaky pipeline” with regard to academic positions because their influx of graduated master students is already imbalanced: on average more women than man graduate, but this average hides big differences according to study field.

In sum, despite overall figures showing that women have closed the gender gap in higher education with regard to enrollments and degrees, in several ways, gender gaps are still apparent in Flemish higher education. This is not to say that higher education is entirely to blame. It is a societal problem and gender differences in education manifest themselves already from secondary education onwards, although at that level the boys are the group that deserves attention because girls are more present in tracks preparing for higher education and also have a higher study success (Vlaamse Overheid, 2017). In any case, given the situation of persistent gender imbalances, it is useful to look at the policies that have been proposed and implemented in Flanders to tackle this problem.

3. Policies and Initiatives in Flanders

The participation of women in higher education grew exponentially in the 1960s and 1970s. In this first wave of democratization of higher education, social class, economic status, and gender became less important as reasons why people did not participate in higher education. Moreover, the education level acquired became one of the key determinants of labor market participation (Pelleriaux, 1998). Nevertheless, this evolution did not signify the end of inequality in higher education. The social and economic background of students remained a factor determining participation in higher education (Tan, 1998). And as we have seen above, gender imbalances have remained persistent as well.

It begs the question, therefore, what the Flemish government's stance has been on gender inequalities in higher education. Is there currently a public policy on gender issues and has the government taken the measures to reduce gender inequalities in the student population? In responding to these questions, it is important to keep in mind that the policy process in Flanders involves participation of the stakeholders in education, through their representative organizations. There is a Flemish interuniversity council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad, VLIR) and a Flemish council representing the universities of applied sciences (Vlaamse Hogescholenraad, VLHORA). More to the point in this case, the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad, VLOR) played an important part in putting gender issues on the agenda. The Flemish Education Council is the body representing the educational providers, the staff, the students, the socioeconomic organizations, and the sociocultural organizations. In many cases, its advice is an obligatory step in drawing up new legislation, but it can also address policy issues on its own initiative.

In a broad sense, the gender issue is well acknowledged within education policy. For instance, breaking down tables according to gender is a standard practice in publications of the government and of other actors. The yearly publication of educational statistics by the government (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2020; or for an overview in English see Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2019) is a case in point.

But on the other hand gender imbalances in the student population in higher education are seldom taken as an issue on itself. There are, for instance, few specific reports, or position papers, or policy texts – some reports on gender in a STEM context notwithstanding, see below. And when the issue is taken up separately, mostly the perspective taken is that of labor market needs. For example, in 2012, the then Minister for Equal Opportunities proposed to develop an action plan to address the career gap between women and men. Although this action plan was never actually realized (Vrouwenraad, 2019), some preparatory steps were taken (see Sels, 2012; SERV, 2012; VLOR, 2012). The preparatory documents started from the observation that there was a (too) large vertical and horizontal segregation on the labor market and pointed out the close relation between career gap and education gap: to really address the career gap, it would be necessary to tackle gender segregation in education too. In a similar vein, the shortage of graduates in STEM fields of study was addressed from a labor market perspective. The Flemish Government drafted an action plan with regard to STEM (Vlaamse Regering, 2012) that defined the “STEM problem” on the basis of two questions: Is there a sufficient number of employees with a STEM training on the labor market to meet the demand? And are the competences of STEM graduates sufficiently aligned with the demand from the labor market?

The labor market perspective is however not necessarily the right way to look at gender issues in the higher education student population. The Flemish Education Council posed the question to the minister “to what extent the labor market driven measures in national and international goal frameworks are in line with the key purposes of education” (VLOR, 2012, p. 6, our translation). The Flemish Education Council's starting point was the pedagogical mission of education, that is, personal development and critical-creative integration in society. And it referred to other complimentary goal frameworks rather than economic frameworks such as the Lisbon goals of the European Union: to guarantee equal opportunities, to prepare students for economic autonomy, to foster social cohesion, and to stimulate lifelong learning (VLOR, 2012). From this pedagogical perspective, the Flemish Education Council implied that the room for maneuver is rather limited. It contended that a more equal participation of men and women in different fields of study should never be a goal in itself, but could be an effect of study choice guidance. It further clarified that the curriculum and the pedagogical and didactical methods used by schools should lead to the defined minimal goals, including awareness of perceived gender roles and stereotypes, regardless of gender ratios in study programs (VLOR, 2012). In other words, it ruled out the number of enrolled women and men in study programs as a valid indicator of a good choice of study.

Moreover, the Flemish Education Council defined the link with the labor market as problematic in itself. It did not deny that preparation for the labor market should be a goal, among other goals, for education. But it contended, first, that there is a lack of information about the relation between a specific study program and one or more professions, and second, that it canno...