What Do Our Neighbors Believe? Second Edition

Questions and Answers on Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

Micah Greenstein, Kendra G. Hotz, John Kaltner

• Editorial: Westminster John Knox Press
• Año: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781611649697
• Categoría: Theologie & Religion
• Categoría: Vergleichende Religion

The current social and political climate makes it easy to benefit from religious misunderstanding. Political and religious leaders create fear of the religious other in order to drum up support for themselves. But the best way to combat deliberate misrepresentation is to provide accurate, timely information about the three great monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Originally published in 2007, What Do Our Neighbors Believe? Second Edition organizes the three belief systems, asking the same questions of each: When and where did each originate? What are the sacred writings? What kind of leaders does each have? What are their most essential beliefs? New sections explore current ethical questions and issues, including the deliberate use of misinformation about Islam to bolster power and generate fear and the recent rise in anti-Semitic hate crimes. By introducing the common aspects of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the authors make understanding their genuine differences and their many similarities much more possible.

Chapter One

Origin and Composition

1. When, where, and how did the religion begin?

Judaism. The story of Judaism, as does all history, begins with a dim and misty past. Little agreement exists among most historians about the actual beginning of Jewish civilization, including the period of the founding patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, or even the life of Moses, including the enslavement and liberation from bondage in Egypt. Traditionalists subscribe to every detail of the biblical narrative as historical fact. Others accept only the broadest contours of those events described in this earliest period of Israelite folklore, without ascribing to them any factual foundation.

The most reliable conjecture is that the gradual settlement of the Hebrews in Canaan (later called Palestine by the Romans, on behalf of the native Philistines) began sometime between 1300 and 1200 BCE. After a tenuous and contentious truce under the rule of the Judges for about two hundred years, the twelve separate tribes finally united about ten centuries before the Christian era and formed the first commonwealth, established first under Saul and then under David and Solomon.

After Solomon’s death, as a result of internal conflict and division, Palestine was divided into two separate kingdoms. The larger was Israel, which included ten of the original twelve tribes, and the smaller was Judah, which consisted of the remaining two. In 722 BCE, the Assyrian Empire attacked and destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel, which marked the close of a pivotal era. Inasmuch as only Judah retained its independence, the defeat marked the end of Hebrew history and the beginning of Jewish history. The word “Jew” is simply a contraction of the word “Judean.”

Contrary to popular belief, the ten tribes of Israel were not “lost.” They were obliterated as a nation. A number of well-meaning people remain convinced that somewhere a sizeable remnant continues to exist undetected. A few even speculate that they may be linked to the Native Americans of North America. Such connections, however, have never been documented. The same applies to claims of their existence in Africa, South America, or the British Isles. For nearly another 150 years, Judah continued to survive as a small nation, leading a very precarious existence at the crossroads of powerful empires. Finally, in 586 BCE it too was laid to waste by the overwhelming might of the Babylonian Empire. The capital, Jerusalem, was destroyed, along with the Temple of Solomon, and most of its leadership sent into exile to Babylonia.

Ironically, these decisive centuries, though racked with bloodshed and chaos, produced the greatest visionaries of ancient Israel, the literary prophets. Such spiritual giants as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Amos, Micah, and Hosea not only gave Judaism its distinctive religious character but also shaped the moral legacy of all Western civilization as well.

In 516 BCE, when numbers of exiles began returning from Babylon, the community established a Second Jewish Commonwealth and rebuilt Jerusalem, which continued for another six hundred tumultuous years. It struggled first under Persian rule, then under the Greeks and Syrians, and finally under Roman domination. It thrived briefly for nearly a century of independence under its own Hasmonean dynasty after the successful revolt of the Maccabees against the Greek-Syrian Empire in 168 BCE, which inspired the Festival of Chanukah.

The revolt against the Roman Empire in 70 CE, however, ended in catastrophe. The Romans razed the Temple and demolished the city of Jerusalem. The Jews who were not slaughtered were expelled and dispersed throughout the known world. A few settled as far east as Central Asia, others settled in the hills of Ethiopia, and still others, in Italy and Spain. Although for a time Egypt became an important center of Jewish life, it was in Babylonia, that part of the world in which Abraham the first Hebrew patriarch was born, that a stable and thriving community grew and lasted for well over a thousand years. During that period and in that place, the Jewish people created and developed their major historic institutions, including the synagogue, the academies of higher learning, the Talmud, and the foundations of Jewish law.

Jews arrived in Europe as early as the time of Julius Caesar, although the community consisted of only scattered settlements until the eleventh century. The principal center of Jewish life at this juncture, however, was Islamic Spain. Jewish scholars, writers, and scientists under the benign rule of Muslims produced more philosophy, poetry, science, and religious literature during this era, called the Golden Age, than in any other period or place of its history.

A major turning point was 1492, with the expulsion of Jews from Christian Spain after a century of relentless and devastating persecution by the combined tyranny of both church and kingdom. They fled primarily to non-Catholic countries, including Holland and Turkey, but eventually the largest number settled in Eastern Europe, where a flourishing community emerged in spite of Czarist oppression. Jews there were essentially autonomous and self-contained, which permitted them to create incomparable institutions of learning, a stable family life, and at least a fair measure of economic security.

Christianity. Christianity began early in the first century of the common era when Jesus of Nazareth began his ministry of preaching and healing in the Roman-ruled region of Palestine known as Galilee. Jesus was raised in a Jewish family, and when he began his public ministry at about the age of thirty, he did so in the custom of a rabbi, or teacher of Torah. He gathered disciples and taught them and the crowds who gathered around them wherever they traveled. He healed the diseased, called sinners to repentance, and offered forgiveness for sins. While upholding the importance of the law of Moses as an expression of the will of God, he also challenged conventional ways of interpreting it, especially when that interpretation marginalized social outcasts and those without power. While never directly challenging the authority of the Roman Empire, he called people to remember that their ultimate loyalty rested with the kingdom of God. He healed those who were diseased and raised others from the dead. He ate and conversed with the intellectuals and social elites of his day, but also with those deemed unworthy of his attention, such as women, tax collectors, and sinners. The Gospel according to Mark, one of the oldest written accounts of the birth of Christianity, says simply that “Jesus came to Galilee, proclaiming the good news of God, and saying, ‘The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God has come near; repent, and believe in the good news’” (Mark 1:14–15).

Toward the end of his short public life, Jesus and his disciples traveled to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. While there, Jesus challenged the religious authorities and came to the attention of the civil authorities, probably because of his teachings about a “kingdom” other than that of the Roman Empire. This attention from the Romans eventually led to his execution by crucifixion. Though Christians have long blamed the Jewish leaders for the death of Jesus, in fact he was executed for a political crime, sedition. The charge against him, posted on a placard over his head on the cross, read, “King of the Jews.” The early Christian community, eager to deflect negative attention from the Romans, muted the political nature of Jesus’ crime and thereby contributed to what has become a long, horrible history of blaming the Jews for the death of Jesus and of persecuting them because of it. On the third day after his death, Jesus rose from the dead and appeared to his followers: first to the women, then to the twelve disciples, and finally to some crowds. After a time, he ascended bodily into the heavens.

The life, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus form the founding narrative of the Christian faith. The earliest followers of Jesus proclaimed his message of good news and proclaimed Jesus himself as the content of that good news when they affirmed that he was more than a wandering rabbi and healer. For Christians, Jesus of Nazareth is the Christ or Messiah, which means “the anointed one,” a term that designates a king or ruler. Jesus came to be understood as the Son of God, as God Incarnate, as God-in-our-midst. The Nicene Creed, an early Christian affirmation of faith, declares that Jesus is “very God of very God.” His mighty works point to the presence of the kingdom of God and to Jesus as the one who initiates it. The “good news” that the Gospels present is that through Christ, humanity can be reconciled to God. The early Christians gathered in private homes on the first day of the week, Sunday, the day of the resurrection, to share a meal commemorating the life, death, and resurrection of Christ, to read and proclaim Scripture, and to prepare themselves for Christ’s return. They baptized new members into their fellowship, spread word of the gospel, and made provisions to care for the widows in their midst.

After the Romans crushed a Jewish rebellion in the year 70 and destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem, Christianity along with Judaism lost its status as a tolerated religion within the Roman Empire. Christians became subject to sporadic persecution that made it necessary to meet in secret and dangerous to proclaim their faith publicly. In the early fourth century, however, the emperor Constantine had a vision of the cross and heard a voice saying, “In this sign conquer.” Under the banner of the cross he won a decisive battle to become the sole Roman emperor and soon afterward issued an edict of religious tolerance that ended persecution of the Christian church. He later made Christianity the favored religion of the empire. The faith that began as a small, persecuted sect became the religion of the powerful. One result of this dramatic change in status has been that Christians have always struggled to understand and articulate how their faith ought to be related to culture.

Islam. Islam traces its roots to the time of the Prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE), who is one of the most important and influential religious figures in human history. Muhammad lived his entire life in an area known as the Hijaz, which is found in the western portion of the Arabian Peninsula in what is now Saudi Arabia. Very little is known about Muhammad’s life before his prophetic career. He was orphaned at a young age and was raised by a paternal uncle named Abu Talib. He spent most of his life in Mecca, an economic and religious center that was the largest city in the Hijaz. Mecca was located on the main travel route that merchants took as they transported their goods to and from places as far away as India, and this meant many travelers and visitors would stop in the city to rest and replenish their supplies.

Mecca also attracted many guests because it housed the Kaaba, a religious shrine that was a popular pilgrimage destination. The dominant Arabian religion at that time was polytheism, and sources tell us that as many as 360 gods were housed in the Kaaba during the period just prior to the rise of Islam. Many Arabs would travel great distances to visit this holy site, particularly during those times of the year that were set aside for pilgrimage. Like the commercial travelers who passed through the city, this large influx of visitors required lodging, food, and other services, and they therefore had a very positive effect on the Meccan economy.

Like many Meccans, Muhammad made his living in commerce and trade. At the age of twenty-five he married his boss—she may have owned the company he worked for—a woman named Khadijah, who was about fifteen years older than Muhammad. He never married another woman while Khadijah was alive, and she was a source of comfort and strength in the early years of his prophetic career.

The turning point of Muhammad’s life occurred when he was about forty years old. According to Islamic sources, Muhammad frequently went off on his own to pray in a cave on Mount Hira. One day in the year 610, while he was engaged in prayer, a voice spoke to him and commanded, “Recite!” This was the first experience of what Muhammad and his followers would come to see as a series of revelations from God that would continue throughout the remaining twenty-two years of his life. The voice was understood to be that of the angel Gabriel, and the revelations would eventually be gathered into a book that was called the Qur’an. After a period of initial confusion and doubt, Muhammad came to view himself as a prophet who had been chosen by God to deliver a message of monotheism to the people of Mecca, who were urged to leave behind their polytheistic ways and embrace worship of the one true God. The name given to this form of religion was islam, an Arabic term meaning “submission,” which underscores the believer’s attitude of surrender in the face of God’s authority and power.

Muhammad’s message was not well received in Mecca. He was able to gain a relatively small following, but many rejected it outright. There was a very pragmatic reason why some refused to accept his teaching: if they dismantled the polytheistic system currently in place, people would stop making pilgrimages to the Kaaba, and Mecca would lose a significant amount of income. Reactions became so hostile that Muhammad began to fear for the safety of his followers. The early Islamic sources contain many references to the threats and dangers that Muhammad and the early Muslims endured at the hands of the Meccans.

Muhammad’s fortune turned in 622, when the inhabitants of the town of Yathrib asked him to come and live among them. Located about 250 miles north of Mecca, Yathrib had a significant Jewish population, and Muhammad had been invited to serve as a judge for the various factions living in the area. He left Mecca under the cover of darkness and made the journey with a small group of followers. Although they sometimes experienced problems with their new neighbors, in this environment the Muslim community was able to grow and develop without the tensions that confronted them in Mecca. Muhammad spent the rest of his life in Yathrib, where he is buried. It became so closely identified with him that its name was changed to madinat al-nabi (city of the prophet), which is usually shortened to Medina (city).

Muhammad’s final task was to convert his hometown of Mecca to the new religion of Islam. After a number of pilgrimages to the city, he was eventually able to win over the leading citizens of the city, and the rest of the population soon followed. The story of how he entered Mecca and transformed the Kaaba into a shrine commemorating worship of the only God is one of the most celebrated traditions in Islamic lore. By the time Muhammad died in 632, Islam was present throughout the entire Arabian Peninsula and was poised to spread throughout much of the known world.

The events of Muhammad’s life (described above) come from his biography and other Islamic sources that Muslims have consulted for centuries. Yet scholars have sometimes expressed concerns about the reliability and accuracy of these sources, particularly since they were sometimes compiled a long time after the events they recount. Nonetheless, they remain our only records of the early Islamic community, and they continue to play an important role in the lives of Muslims.

2. What are the main subgroups within the religion?

Judaism. Probably nowhere is the diversity of contemporary Judaism more sharply clarified than in the classification devised by Leo Trepp.¹ He explains the variety of interpretations of Judaism at the dawn of the twentieth century in terms of six different groups. The first he titles “Old Orthodoxy,” which taught that the Torah is divine and must be obeyed without question. Judaism exists by itself without contact with the outside world, which is seen as invariably hostile. This form of orthodoxy, which is still practiced in some circles and which rejects any hint of change, prevailed primarily in Eastern Europe. It still persists, however, in certain communities around the world. One explanation for such rigid discipline in the past was that the performance of the commandments in all their minute details was a psychological defense mechanism against the intolerable hardships of persecution. It gave the people great strength through strict observance, while the expectation of a personal messiah provided them with much-needed hope of relief from their hardships.

A second form of Jewish faith in our time is neo-Orthodoxy. For followers of this modern discipline, the Torah is divine, and obedience to it is a service to humankind. The concept of the chosen people implies that the Jews everywhere must set a moral standard for all to emulate. Secular culture contains wisdom worth seeking; adjustment to the modern world is essential but may not conflict with the observance of Torah. Good citizenship is a supreme religious obligation. Aesthetic values too can be ennobling and uplifting.

For Conservative Judaism, the divinity of Torah is grounded in the consent of the people. With the passage of time, the community itself will adjust its commandments to their needs. Major emphasis is directed to history so that the past is a primary guide to inform the future. Acceptance of new knowledge and observance depends on the will of ...