South Eastern and North Western, the Baltic, and the Nordic countries were chosen for the study in this volume because they have somewhat parallel histories: Slovenia and Croatia were parts of the Habsburg Monarchy together with other kingdoms (according to some historians from 1526–1804), and Norway and Denmark were parts of in the Oldenburg Monarchy (1320–1814).
South Eastern Europe
Habsburg Monarchy is the term for the lands and kingdoms of the House of Habsburg. The Habsburg Monarchy was a composite monarchy with no single constitution or shared institutions outside of the Habsburg court; itself united only in the person of the monarch. The Monarchy was dominant on the European continent in its time. This gradually changed in the early nineteenth century. From 1804 to 1867 the Habsburg Monarchy was formally unified as the Austrian Empire, and from 1867 to 1918 as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It dissolved into several new states at the end of World War I.
The Monarchy was rather loosely coupled around the king, while the Empire was politically and culturally tighter, but all through the era from around 1500 up to the end of World War I they constituted communities as foundations for identity building. This happened to different degrees.
But even education was influenced, as Andrej Koren (2002) states: “In the 18th century the role of education was to develop a good citizen rather than a good individual. There were two influences on perceptions about the role of the education system. One perspective may be defined as pietism, where work is understood as a moral obligation. The other perspective is ‘kameralistika’. It focused on the need for state intervention in every area of life and reflects ideas of absolutism. The role of state in education emerged also from the multi-nation-state and the role and intentions of a centralising government; a centralised school system enabled better surveillance and control over the variety of nations.”
Since World War I structures and cultures in the countries have developed differently as shown in the country reports.
North Western Europe
Norway and Denmark also have shared backgrounds in the Nordic history, political institutions, society, and culture.1 The Scandinavian languages, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish are national variations of the same language (Blossing, Imsen, & Moos, 2014). The language community reflects the close political relations between the Nordic peoples. For most of the period c.1320–1520 the kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway were united in loosely coupled political unions, like the Kalmar Union 1390–1523; Denmark, Norway, and Sweden joined under a single monarch.
The union was not quite continuous; there were several short interruptions. Legally, the countries remained separate sovereign states, but with their domestic and foreign policies being directed by a common monarch.
Around 1523 Scandinavia was divided into two political blocs: the western Oldenburg monarchy with Denmark and Norway and with Sweden in the east. Norway continued to remain a part of the realm of Denmark–Norway under the Oldenburg dynasty for nearly three centuries, until its dissolution in 1814. Although the internal affairs were left to the Danish and Norwegian governments, there was much cultural influence between the two nations; as an example, many Christian hymns in the Norwegian hymn book were composed by Danish writers.
In spite of the division in nation-states after 1814, the Nordic countries retained their common feature, which was strengthened as a result of Scandinavian movements in the nineteenth century and a strong sense of common historical and cultural heritage; all the Nordic nation-states abolished absolutism and introduced democratic constitutions. Moreover, they could count on a long tradition of rule by law. And finally, social inequality was never as pronounced as on the European continent, even though parts of the Nordic region did follow a more continental pattern with regard to social structures. Strong and self-ruling rural communities characterised the Nordic model, which is very well documented, especially in Sweden and Norway, from the late Middle Ages and onwards. In other words, history has put its mark on the process of political and social modernisation in the Nordic countries from the middle of the nineteenth century to the present.
In the early twenty-first century unifying bonds still exist between the Nordic countries. They are all welfare states, characterised by stable parliamentary democracies, low elements of violence in society, extensive equality between men and women, and an organised labour market. Recent decades of increased immigration have been a major challenge to national identities. As a region in Europe, their unifying characteristics are perhaps most obvious when it comes to such everyday phenomena as the childcare system and the high rate of women in the labour market.
The education politics and regulation in Denmark and Norway have developed quite similarly over the past decades as will be illustrated in the country reports.
Lithuania was not part of the Nordic countries but in parallel to them developed a societal vision of democracy similar to the Nordic.