The Elements of Persuasion

Richard Maxwell,Robert Dickman

• Editorial: HarperCollins e-books
• Año: 2009
• ISBN:
  9780061859861
• Categoría: Psychology
• Categoría: Social Psychology

"Every great leader is a great storyteller, " says Harvard University psychologist Howard Gardner.

According to master storytellers Richard Maxwell and Robert Dickman, storytelling is a lot like running. Everyone knows how to do it, but few of us ever break the four-minute mile. What separates the great runners from the rest? The greats know not only how to hit every stride, but how every muscle fits together in that stride so that no effort is wasted and their goals are achieved. World-class runners know how to run from the inside out. World-class leaders know how to tell a story from the inside out.

In The Elements of Persuasion, Maxwell and Dickman teach you how to tell stories too. They show you how storytelling relates to every industry and how anyone can benefit from its power.

Maxwell and Dickman use their experiences—both in the entertainment industry and as corporate consultants—to deliver a formula for winning stories. All successful stories have five basic components: the passion with which the story is told, a hero who leads us through the story and allows us to see it through his or her eyes, an antagonist or obstacle that the hero must overcome, a moment of awareness that allows the hero to prevail, and the transformation in the hero and in the world that naturally results.

Let's face it: leading is a lot more fun than following. Even if you never want to be a CEO or to change the world, you do want to have control over your own work and your own ideas. Ultimately, that is what the power of storytelling can give you.

CHAPTER ONE

So What’s Your Story?

There are two things everyone in business does every day. We all sell something—our products, our services, our skills, our ideas, our vision of where our business is going—and we tell stories. We sell things because that is how we as a democratic, capitalist society organize our energy. We tell stories because, as cognitive psychology is continuing to discover, stories are how we as human beings organize our minds. If we want to sell something, we have to persuade someone else to buy it.

We didn’t always put such a high premium on persuasion. There was a time when the biggest and toughest among us simply told the smaller and more delicate what to do and punched them in the nose if that were a problem. Everyone, with the possible exception of Mike Tyson, agrees our modern way is better. But it has required us to learn a whole new skill set.

Compared with our great-grandparents, even the least skilled among us are crackerjack salespeople. It comes from practice.

One hundred years ago we didn’t get much. Most of us lived on more or less self-contained farms. Our business was agriculture, controlled by slow seasonal rhythms. We sold our harvest once or twice a year. We got the market price. We hitched up our buckboard and rode into town once or twice a month and shopped at the general store. What we got there was largely generic. We wanted biscuits, but the type of biscuit we got was the type the store sold. Limited shelf space and the difficulties of transportation made brand options rare. We might try a new product, if the store clerk took the time to tell us how it was improved and how many satisfied customers he had, or we might not. Then, having completed our relatively intense commercial experience—intense enough so that going to the store was considered not a chore but entertainment—we headed back to our farm and our normal daily routine, secure in the knowledge that for the next week or so we wouldn’t have to either buy or sell anything.

This left us easy marks for anyone who really knew how to deliver a sales pitch. Which is one of the reasons traveling salesmen got the reputation they got—and why some of us still feel slightly embarrassed about “being in sales.” When the telephone reached out to even the most distant farms we resented it and called the salesmen who used this new medium to catch us around the dinner table “phonies.” The name stuck.

Admittedly things weren’t so leisurely paced if you lived in the slums of New York, and if you are reading this in Europe you will have to adjust the dates back one or two hundred years, but you get the idea. Buying and selling used to be an occasional thing.

Compare that with how many times you were involved in a sales pitch just on your way to work today. The newspaper ads your eyes skimmed past (but which had their subliminal effect), the radio spots that interrupted the news on your morning drive, the focus-group-tested sound bites the politicians used to push their parties’ agendas (or, if your radio tastes are different, the product-placement mentions of burgers and beverages by your favorite rap artist), the billboards, the bumper stickers, the product logos on T-shirts. And they aren’t just selling products. They are selling ideas, opinions, brand loyalties, political affiliations—you name it. Persuasion is very big business.

How big? In 1999, economist Deirdre McCloskey, writing in the American Economic Review, estimated that 28 percent of the GNP of the United States was involved in commercial persuasion. This includes law, public relations, the ministry, psychology, and marketing. That means last year almost $3.3 trillion was spent in the United States on commercial persuasion—selling.

Think about that—$3.3 trillion. That makes the “country of persuaders” the third-largest economy in the world.

To deal with all that persuasive pressure, to have even a few meager dollars in our pockets at the end of the day, we have all had to develop tremendous sales resistance. To keep from being overwhelmed and paralyzed by all the demands that we do this or buy that, we have developed thick skins and the ability to ignore most of the chatter. For those of us whose business depends on being able to persuade others—which is all of us in business—the key to survival is being able to cut through all that clutter and make the sale.

The good news is that the secret of selling is what it has always been—a good story. It’s that simple. Stories sell.

The even better news is that storytelling is innate in the human psyche. It is something we all know how to do.

In fact, it is so hardwired into us that it has its own place on our genome—a gene called FOXP2. Discovered in 2001 by Professor Anthony Monaco and his research team at Oxford University, FOXP2 is now thought to be only the first of what scientists believe is a whole constellation of genes that make language and narrative possible. FOXP2 specifically makes possible the subtle physical and neurological skills needed to speak words rapidly and precisely, and is probably linked to the use of complex syntax as well. From a cellular level on up, we are all born storytellers.

So if we all can tell stories, and stories are crucial to selling, why are some of us better at selling our products and ideas than others?

It’s a lot like running. We all know how to do it, but only a few of us will ever break a four-minute mile. What separates the great runners from the also-rans is that great runners understand how to run from the inside out. They know how every stride, every muscle in that stride, fits together to achieve the goal. If we want to excel at persuasion, we need to understand story that same way.

The problem is that we are bombarded by so many stories every day—stories about what toothpaste is best, about terrorists lurking in the shadows, about new scientific discoveries and eternal spiritual truths—that it is hard to focus on story as story. To see a story for what it is rather than what it is about. We need to get stories to hold still long enough for us to get a good look at them. For that, we need a good definition.

The definition we will use throughout this book is a simple one:

A story is a fact, wrapped in an emotion that compels us to take an action that transforms our world.

In the early 1970s Jerome Bruner, one of the fathers of modern cognitive psychology, was closely observing very young children. He noticed, and soon proved, that even before children are able to talk they are organizing their world and communicating by simple stories.

First are what he called the stories of completion. The young child says (by means of gesture and facial expression), “All gone,” when the bottle is empty. The child says, “Uhoh,” when she feels she has made a mistake and “Ohh!” when surprised or pleased.

These stories are short but complete. And they meet our definition. Take “All gone.” The fact is that the bottle is empty. The baby wraps this fact in an emotion—either satisfaction or desire for more—and expresses that. Depending on which emotion is expressed, the parent is compelled to take an action—either to burp the baby and settle her down, or to get another bottle. Either way, the baby’s world has been transformed for the better. Bruner went on to assert that infants develop meaning through narrative, and that the need to create stories precedes language. He even suggests that infants are motivated to learn to speak precisely because they already have stories inside themselves that they want to share with others.

In 1981 Bruner was involved in another study that extended these ideas. This one centered on a two-year-old girl known as “Emily.” Emily’s parents, university professors, noticed that when they put her to bed she spent time talking to herself before going to sleep. If you have kids you probably have noticed the same thing. Curious, Emily’s parents put a microrecorder in her room and occasionally taped her monologues for the next eighteen months. The tapes (122 in total) were then given to a group of linguists and psychologists led by Harvard’s Katherine Nelson, who discusses this research in her classic book Narratives from the Crib.

What Emily was doing in her room alone after her parents left wasn’t pleasant babbling. She was mulling over the exciting events of her day, which was to be expected, but she was also projecting out, sometimes in great detail, what she would be doing tomorrow, who she would be doing it with, and how she might be feeling about it. In business terms, she was engaged in scenario planning, and she was doing it with an often wry sense of humor.

Bruner and the other researchers realized that Emily wasn’t just using story to communicate with others. She was using it to shape and mold her own view of reality as well. Though Emily may have been more verbal than most, what she was doing is something we all did at her age as we drifted off to sleep—and what we all still do, though we might not be aware of it. She was weaving together the strands of her day into the fabric of her memory, and in doing that she was shaping the mental lens through which she would view each succeeding day. And she was doing it through the power of story.

So story is not simply the content of what we think, it is also the how of how we think. It is one of the key organizing principles of our mind.

There are three things that we should take away from Bruner’s research for now.

1. Stories don’t have to be long.
2. Stories don’t have to be verbal.
3. The right story, at the right time, helps us shape and control our world.

The “George Bush at Ground Zero” story is a good example of all three points.

On September 14, 2001, President Bush visited the site of the 9/11 tragedy. He moved through the crowd of rescue workers who were still hoping to find the bodies of some of the nearly three thousand people who had died when the World Trade Center towers collapsed three days earlier. He climbed over the rubble, talking to workers, then he put an arm around the shoulders of a fireman who was wearing a white helmet, offering him a few words of hope. Someone handed the president a bullhorn. He stood up on a piece of the fallen tower and spoke briefly to the crowd. What he said was heartfelt but not often remembered. What is unforgettable is the image of the president standing in the rubble, his arm around a fireman, speaking to the crowd with calm, forceful resolve. That image, sometimes reduced to a single frame of video and put on the front page of a hundred newspapers, is the story.

It meets our definition. The fact is that the World Trade Center was destroyed by a terrorist attack, and this is conveyed clearly in every camera angle. By placing his arm around the fireman the president has wrapped that fact in a mix of simple but extremely powerful emotions—compassion, respect for the sacrifice of those who died going to the aid of others, clear resolve that this sacrifice would not be in vain. And in hindsight this image was the moment when the nation came out of its collective sense of shock and made up its mind to do something. When everything changed.

That is the power of the right story at the right time.

Now that we have a workable definition of what a story is, we can turn to this book’s core questions: What makes a good story? What makes a story great? What gives a story staying power at the box office and in the boss’s office?

Having spent our professional lives crafting and presenting stories that sell—first in the entertainment industry and more recently as corporate consultants—we’ve realized that all successful stories have five basic components: the passion with which the story is told, a hero who leads us through the story and allows us to see it through his or her eyes, an anatagonist or obstacle that the hero must overcome, a moment of awareness that allows the hero to prevail, and the transformation in the hero and in the world that naturally results.

These are the five basic elements of every story.

Why five elements and not, say, six or seven? To understand that we have to go back to the dawn of our culture.

Pythagoras was the first great systems thinker in Western culture. He did more than develop that triangle theorem we all had to memorize for our SATs. He pioneered the study of harmonics and created our musical scale. He established the discipline of philosophy, and gave it its name. He founded what was arguably the first modern university. So Pythagoras would be a logical place to start in our study of story. Unfortunately, he left no writing behind. So our story begins with his student, the philosopher and poet Empedocles.

From Empedocles, we first get the concept of the world made up of four elements: Fire, Earth, Air, and Water. A fifth element, implied by his theory but unstated, was added a generation later by Plato and his student Aristotle. Sometimes called “Ether,” this fifth element is perhaps more accurately referred to as “Space” because it is the field in which the other elements occur.

Until recently, conventional wisdom viewed Empedocles as a natural philosopher—in essence a protoscientist—primarily trying to describe the material world. More recent scholarship, most preeminently by contemporary philosopher Oscar Ichazo, has shown that the four elements of Empedocles were not solely material but also described inner psychological states. It is in this archetypal psychological sense that Empedocles’ elements relate to our understanding of story. They are keys that allow us to see story nonlinearly. Ichazo, whose understanding of the ancient elements is by far the most profound (and whose work has deeply influenced our own), goes so far as to call the elements “ideotropic,” meaning that they are ideas that attract our mind to an inner truth in the same way a plant is attracted to the sun.

So how do the five archetypal elements of Empedocles and Plato relate to our five narrative elements? Since story is the carrier of culture, and Empedocles’ elements lie at the core of ours, it is not surprising that there is a direct correlation.

Once again, the five-element story model is passion, hero, antagonist, awareness, and transformation.

PASSION

Every powerful narrative has passion, the energy that makes you want, even need, to tell it. It is the essential spark, the irreducible cohesive core from which the rest of the story grows. Having it is vital. This corresponds to first of Empedocles’ five elements—Fire.

It is passion that ignites the story in the heart of the audience. It is passion that calls the audience’s attention to the story in the first place, particularly if the story is aimed at more than one listener.

When an audience first comes to a story, it is composed of separate individuals with differing needs, desires, and distractions. Theater people call a new or difficult audience “cold.” They understand that such an audience must be “warmed up” before it can absorb new material.

That is what passion does. It kindles our interests and makes us want to hear more. It unifies us as an audience. And in that unity, which both transcends our self and reinforces it, there is tremendous strength. We turn on the TV every night even when there is nothing really good on just to be part of the story.

The shorter the story, the more powerful the passion must be. A perfect example of a really passionate story well told is the famous “1984” spot that introduced the Macintosh computer to the world. It lasted only sixty seconds. It was only played once on national TV, at the beginning of the third quarter of the 1984 Super Bowl. It almost didn’t run at all. People are still talking about it.

At the time the computer industry was in transition and Apple Computer was in big trouble. Apple had been a major player when computers were seen as expensive toys for hobbyists or learning platforms for children. But when corporations began seriously going digital, they naturally turned to a name they had come to trust—IBM. IBM PC computers became “industry standard,” with all the purchasing and advertising muscles that implied.

In response, Apple CEO Steve Jobs, one of America’s most passionately committed executives, came up with the Macintosh, a computer that redefined the paradigm. It was easy to use, creative, not corporate, “the computer for the rest of us.” It was cutting edge, but unless pe...