Chemistry
Fullerenes
Fullerenes are molecules composed entirely of carbon, arranged in a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. They are known for their unique structure, which resembles a soccer ball, and have properties that make them useful in various applications, including nanotechnology, electronics, and materials science. Fullerenes have sparked significant interest due to their potential for diverse industrial and scientific uses.
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8 Key excerpts on "Fullerenes"
eBook - PDF- Rathinasamy, A.(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- NEW INDIA PUBLISHING AGENCY (NIPA)(Publisher)
A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. Spherical Fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and cylindrical ones are called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings. The first fullerene to be discovered, and the family’s namesake, was buckminsterfullerene C 60 , made in 1985 by Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley. The name was homage to Richard Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic domes it resembles. Fullerenes have since been found to occur (if rarely) in nature. The discovery of Fullerenes greatly expanded the number of known carbon allotropes, which until recently were limited to graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon such as soot and charcoal. Buckyballs and buckytubes have been the subject of intense research, both for their unique chemistry and for their technological applications, especially in materials science, electronics, and nanotechnology. Fullerenes and Carbon Nano Materials Chapter-6 An Introduction to Nanotechnology ........................................................................... 84 Fig. 6.1 : Buckminsterfullerene C 60 Fig. 6.2 : The Icosahedral Fullerene C 540 Prediction and discovery The existence of C 60 was predicted by Eiji Osawa of Toyohashi University of Technology in a Japanese magazine in 1970. He noticed that the structure of a corannulene molecule was a subset of a soccer-ball shape, and he made the hypothesis that a full ball shape could also exist. His idea was reported in Japanese magazines, but did not reach Europe or America. With mass spectrometry, discrete peaks were observed corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or seventy or more carbon atoms. In 1985, Harold Kroto (then of the University of Sussex), James R.
eBook - PDF- Saeed Farrokhpay(Author)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Arcler Press(Publisher)
Fullerenes Fullerenes is a form of carbon consisting of a spheroidal molecule that has a hollow cage o more than 60 atoms. It is the said to be the third form of carbon alongside diamond and graphite. Fullerenes is also referred to as buckminsterfullerene. The hollow carbon molecules put together to form a closed cage are referred to as buckyballs or carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Fullerenes were first discovered by Sir Harold W. Kroto in 1985. Harold worked alongside a group of scientists. They used lasers to vaporize graphite rods in a surrounding filled with Helium gas. They were able to obtain cage like molecules made of 60 carbon atoms put together by single or double bonds. The single and double bonds form a sphere with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal faces. Its structure resembles a soccer ball. Carbon 60 has a highly symmetrical shape. Other than the hollow shape, Fullerenes molecules can also take the shape of the tube and ellipsoid. They also have different sizes. The empirical formula of the carbon molecules is used in the informal denotation of Fullerenes having a closed mesh topology. The empirical formula written as Cn where n represents the number of carbon atoms. In some special cases, values of n can be more than one isomer (Gupta, 2011). Fullerenes got its name from buckminsterfullerene which is then refined to be Buckminster fuller. Bucky onions is the name given to nested closed Fullerenes while CNTs are the name given to cylindrical Fullerenes. They are also referred to as buckytubes. Fullerite is the name given to the bulk solid for mixed or pure Fullerenes. The discovery of Fullerenes led to other allotropes of carbon. Fullerenes has been used alongside other technological applications and has now been used in nanotechnology. There two main families of Fullerenes. The difference between the two families is brought F Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology 62 about by their applications and distinct properties.
eBook - PDFCarbon Nanomaterials
Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications
- Rakesh Behari Mathur, Bhanu Pratap Singh, Shailaja Pande(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Taylor & Francis(Publisher)
41 2 Fullerenes 2.1 Introduction Fullerenes are a class of carbon allotropes in the form of hollow, closed cages of carbon atoms. Harold W. Kroto, Robert F. Curl, Richard E. Smalley, and their team discovered Fullerenes serendipitously in 1985 at Rice University during a series of laser vaporization experiments on graphite in which they were probing by mass spectrometry the carbon clusters formed in the atmospheres of giant red stars [1–3]. The prominent all-carbon struc- ture formed during those experiments on graphite consisted of 60 carbon atoms or C 60 [1,2]. Architect Buckminster Fuller’s 1960s geodesic domes provided a clue to the structure of C 60 , which was proposed to have a soccer ball-like structure [1,4]. In honor of Fuller the C 60 molecule was named buckminsterfullerene and the new class of all-carbon caged mol- ecules was named Fullerenes [1,2,5]. For their discovery of C 60 , Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996. In 1990, Krätschmer and colleagues reported a method to generate Fullerenes in a work- able amount from a carbon soot deposit prepared by resistive heating of graphite [6]. The Fullerenes were isolated from the soot by extracting in an organic solvent [4,7,8]. Mass and infrared (IR) spectra of the extracted material and x-ray analysis of the crystalline mate- rial obtained from the deposit extract provided the first proof of the C 60 structure as pro- posed earlier by Kroto et al. [2]. An independent study of similarly arc-processed carbon by Taylor et al. showed that chromatographically separated soluble extracts of C 60 and C 70 separated into magenta and red fractions, respectively, and their C-13 NMR analyses gave definitive evidence of the proposed structures of C 60 and C 70 [9].
eBook - PDFNanoscience and Nanoengineering
Advances and Applications
- Ajit D. Kelkar, Daniel J.C. Herr, James G. Ryan(Authors)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
147 Fullerenes and Their Potential in Nanomedicine Christopher Kepley and Anthony Dellinger 9.1 Fullerenes AS A PLATFORM FOR NEW SOLUTIONS IN SEVERAL SCIENTIFIC AREAS Fullerenes are closed carbon spheres that are being actively pursued globally for a wide range of applications. Empty cage Fullerenes (Figure 9.1a and b) have unique electrochemical properties and have a wide range of potentially beneficial biologic properties. Another type of fullerene can have metals enclosed inside them (metallo-Fullerenes). Fullerenes have a unique cage structure with delocalized π molecular orbital electrons. This structure confers unusual activity in electron transfer systems due to their low reorganization energy, low lying excited states (singlet and triplet), and extended triplet lifetimes. Further, the spherical configuration of the planar ben-zene rings imposes an unusual constraint on these π electron orbitals. The fullerene carbon cage is insoluble and thus must be derivatized (simply meaning moieties or side groups must be added to the carbon cage) in order to make them water soluble and compatible in biological systems. The ability of Fullerenes to be derivatized with side chains provides opportunities to diversify, manipulate, and harness the 9 CONTENTS 9.1 Fullerenes as a Platform for New Solutions in Several Scientific Areas ...... 147 9.2 Fullerenes for Therapeutics .......................................................................... 148 9.2.1 The Ability of Fullerene FDs to Affect Mast Cell-Driven, Allergic Inflammatory Disease ........................................................ 149 9.2.2 MC and PBB in Asthma ................................................................... 149 9.2.3 MCs in Arthritis ............................................................................... 152 9.2.4 MCs in Multiple Sclerosis and Fullerenes ........................................
eBook - PDF- Andreas Hirsch(Author)
- 2008(Publication Date)
- Wiley-VCH(Publisher)
In contrast to graphite and diamond, with extended solid state structures, the Fullerenes are spherical molecules and are soluble in a variety of organic solvents, an important requirement for chemical manipulations. The Fullerenes are built up of fused pentagons and hexagons. The pentagons, absent in graphite, provide the curvature. The smallest stable and at the same time the most abundant fullerene, obtained by usual preparation methods, is the Zh-symmetrical buckminsterfullerene C a [Fig 1.11. Buck- minsterfullerene has the shape of a soccer ball. The next stable homologue is C70 [Fig 1.21 followed by the higher Fullerenes c76, c78, (282, c84, C, C94 and c96. The building principle of the Fullerenes is a consequence of the Euler theorem which says that for the closure of each spherical network of n hexagons, 12 pentagons are required, with the exception of n =l. Compared to small two-dimensional molecules, for example the planar benzene, the structures of these three-dimensional systems additionally appeal from an aesthetic point of view. The beauty and the unprecedented spherical architecture of these molecular cages immediately attracted the attention of many scientists. In a very fast development buckminsterfullerene C, became one of the most intensively investigated molecules. For the synthetic chemists the challenge arose to synthesize exohedrally modified derivatives, in which the properties of Fullerenes can be combined with those of other classes of materials. The following questions concerning the derivatization of Fullerenes have been asked from the beginning: What kind of reactivity do the Fullerenes have? Do they behave like a three-dimensional superbenzene? What are the structures of exohedral fullerene derivatives and how stable are they? The IUPAC nomenclature method of buckminsterfullerene given below is too lengthly and complicated for general use' : Furthermore, the enormous number of derivatives including the multitude of possible regioisomers, available by chemical modifications requires the introduction of a simple nomenclature. Already by naming the soccer ball shaped c60 as [5,6]-fullerene-60-Ih, its structure is sufficiently described*. Thereby the numbers 5 and 6
eBook - PDFFullerenes
Principles and Applications
- Fernando Langa De La Puente, Jean-Francois Nierengarten(Authors)
- 2011(Publication Date)
- Royal Society of Chemistry(Publisher)
Saunders, J. Org. Chem. , 2003, 68 , 8281. 23. A. Kaplan, Y. Manor, A. Bekkerman, B. Tsipinyuk and E. Kolodney, Int. J. Mass Spectrom. , 2003, 228 (2–3), 1055. 24. B. Pietzak, M. Waiblinger, T. A. Murphy, A. Weidinger, M. Hoehne, E. Dietel and A. Hirsch, A. Chem. Phys. Lett. , 1997, 279 , 259. 25. H. Huang, M. Ata and Y. Yoshimoto, Chem. Commun. , 2004, 1206. 26. ( a ) Y. Murata, M. Murata and K. Komatsu, Chem. Eur. J. , 2003, 9 , 1600; ( b ) K. Komatsu and Y. Murata, Chem. Lett. , 2005, 34 , 886; ( c ) M. Murata, Y. Murata and K. Komatsu, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2006, 128 , 8024; ( d ) S.-C. Chuang, M. Sander, T. Jarrosson, S. James, E. Rozumov, S. I. Khan and Y. Rubin, J. Org. Chem. , 2007, 72 , 2716; ( e ) M. Sander, T. Jarrosson, S.-C. Chuang, S. I. Khan and Y. Rubin, J. Org. Chem. , 2007, 72 , 2724. 11 (Endo)Fullerenes: From Production to Isolation CHAPTER 2 Endohedral Fullerenes N. CHEN, A. L. ORTIZ AND L. ECHEGOYEN Department of Chemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA 2.1 Introduction Fullerenes are all-carbon compounds consisting of cages with a hollow space inside. 1,2 These compounds have generated considerable interest and activity because of their unique structures and their potential practical applications. One of the most attractive properties is their ability to host atoms and small clusters inside, which was verified by the first report of an endohedral fullerene in 1985 and the isolation of La@C 82 in 1991. 3,4 Since then, endohedral full-erenes have been extensively studied because of their unique electronic struc-tures that arise as a result of the interaction between the encaged species and the cages. 5,6 To date, a wide variety of metal, clusters and even gas molecules, including all the lanthanides, the group II and III metals as well as their corresponding metallic nitride clusters, metallic carbides, metallic oxides, noble gases, nitrogen, and hydrogen, have been encaged by various methods.
eBook - PDFLecture Notes On Fullerene Chemistry: A Handbook For Chemists
A Handbook for Chemists
- Roger Taylor(Author)
- 1999(Publication Date)
- ICP(Publisher)
2 The Structure and Properties of Fullerenes Before describing fullerene chemistry, the structures and basic properties of the Fullerenes must be considered. The properties of nanotubes (which as yet have no chemistry) are also considered here; the (brief) chemistry of incar-Fullerenes is described in Chap. 14. 2.1 Symmetry and Schlegel Diagrams For C 60 there are 1812 possible structures, 1 but only one in which all the pentagons are non-adjacent, and this (having icosahedral symmetry, designated / h ) is thus the most stable isomer (and the only one isolated). Likewise there is only one such isomer (D 5h symmetry) for C 70 (this possesses 5-fold symmetry axes, and a further plane of symmetry at right angles to these). Both these Fullerenes are shown in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2 as Schlegel diagrams. These diagrams, which will be used extensively in this book, are 2-D representations of the 3-D structures; they are very suitable for demonstrating the chemistry, but rather less so for showing the symmetry. They are created by shrinking the polygons of the nearest face, expanding those of the far face, and turning the rear of the molecule inside out, and this is shown (Fig. 2.3) for C 2 o, the smallest fullerene that can in principle exist. Obviously each fullerene can have a large number of Schlegel diagrams, depending upon which of the polygons is chosen as the central view point, though in practice the polygon on a principal axis is normally used. A consequence of this is that Schlegel diagrams for C 60 may have either a pentagon or hexagon at the centre. 17 18 Lecture Notes on Fullerene Chemistry: A Handbook for Chemists Fig. 2.1 Schlegel diagram for C 60 . Fig. 2.2 Schlegel diagram for C 70 . The Structure and Properties of Fullerenes 19 Fig. 2.3 Conversion of 3D structure for C 2 o into a Schlegel diagram. 2.2 Higher Fullerenes Higher fullerene is the term applied to any fullerene possessing more than 70 carbon atoms.
eBook - PDF- H.W. Kroto, J.E. Fischer, Deann Cox(Authors)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- Pergamon(Publisher)
Part One The Fullerenes This page intentionally left blank INTRODUCTION There are several fascinating strands in the story of the birth of fullerene chemistry, physics, and materi-als science. The earliest record of the molecule in the literature is contained in an article by Eiji Osawa in Kagaku (in Japanese) in 1970[ 1 ]. Osawa conjectured that such a molecule would be stable and the follow-ing year he and Yoshida described it more fully in a book on aromatic molecules—again in Japanese[2]. A little later Bochvar and Gal'pern published a Huckel calculation on C 6 0 [3], and in 1980 Davidson applied general group theoretical techniques to a range of highly symmetric molecules, one of which was C 6 0 [4]. However, somewhat earlier in a remark-able article in 1966, David Jones (writing under the pseudonym of Daedalus in the New Scientist) dis-cussed the possibility of creating graphite bal-loons^,6] similar to geodesic cages—these objects are essentially giant Fullerenes[7,8]. The molecule forms spontaneously under our noses when 60 or so carbon atoms are allowed to aggregate during gas-phase nucleation. In general, such conditions may occur relatively frequently, but they appear never previously to have been probed carefully enough. Often when such a situation has arisen many other reactions take place as well, and so the fleeting, shad-owy existence of this third member of the carbon family of allotropes has been obscured. So the discov-ery had to wait until the right experiment could be carried out at the right time with the right instrument. In September 1985 this conjunction took place [9-11]. Some long carbon chain molecules (the cyanopo-lyynes), which had originally been discovered in space during a Sussex/NRC (Ottawa) radioastron-omy collaboration (with David Walton, Takeshi Oka, and Canadian astronomers)[12] were, by the early 80s, found to be streaming out of red giant car-bon stars.
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