Erikson's Stages Of Development

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  Development Through Life

  A Psychosocial Approach

  • Barbara Newman, Philip Newman(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  You can verify the stage concept through reflection on your own past. You can probably recall earlier periods when you were very preoccupied by efforts first to gain your parents’ approval, then to win acceptance by your peers, and later to experience self-acceptance. Each of these concerns may have appeared all-encompassing at the time, but eventually each gave way to a new preoccupation. At each stage, you were confronted with a unique set of problems that required the integration of your personal needs and skills with the social demands of your culture. Erikson (1963) proposed eight stages of psychosocial development. His formulation can be traced in part to the stages of psychosexual development proposed by Freud and in part to his own observations and rich mode of thinking. FIGURE 3.1 ▶ shows the chart that Erikson (1963) produced in Childhood and Ego integrity vs. despair Generativity vs. stagnation Intimacy vs. isolation Identity vs. role confusion Industry vs. inferiority Initiative vs. guilt Autonomy vs. shame, doubt Basic trust vs. mistrust Maturity 8 Adulthood 7 Young adulthood 6 Latency 4 Locomotor–genital 3 Muscular–anal Oral–sensory 8 7 6 4 3 2 1 1 2 5 5 Puberty and adolescence FIGURE 3.1 ▶ ERIKSON’S MODEL OF THE PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Erikson, 1963. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300 Basic Concepts of Psychosocial Theory 61 its scheduled period of critical resolution, the supports of the environment may bring it into appropriate balance at a later period. Hope remains constant throughout life that more sturdy resolutions of the basic confrontation may be realized. (J. M. Erikson, 1988, pp. 74–75) The concept of life stages permits us to consider the various aspects of development, such as physical growth, social relation-ships, and cognitive capacities, at a given period of life and to speculate about their interrelation.

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  Addiction in the Family

  What Every Counselor Needs to Know

  • Virginia A. Kelly(Author)
  • 2015(Publication Date)
  • American Counseling Association

    (Publisher)

  Erikson asserted that Freud emphasized particular aspects of development while avoiding others (Erikson, 1950), and Erikson developed a theory that he felt provided a more balanced view of the psychosocial development of individuals. In addition, Erikson expanded the no- tion of development, continuing it into later stages and proposing Developmental Theory • 49 • a life span perspective. As professional counselors, we endorse a life span perspective; thus, Erikson’s theory has played a large role in our professional understanding of human development. Erikson proposed eight stages of development. He characterized each of these stages with a specific crisis. However, he did not see the developmental crisis as a catastrophe or negative experience. In- stead, he proposed a continuum of two opposing outcomes for each developmental stage. The identified crisis represents what Erikson saw as the central theme or life task typical of individuals within that developmental stage. Furthermore, he suggested that optimal devel- opment within a particular stage would result in a resolution of the identified crisis that was positive (i.e., at one end of the continuum). Poor resolution of the crisis would result in a negative outcome (i.e., the other end of the continuum). In reality, individuals will resolve each developmental crisis with a greater or lesser degree of success in terms of overall psychosocial development. As counselors, we can benefit greatly by assessing the developmental histories of our clients. To be specific, we can put present-day issues into context when we understand what may have transpired for a client during critical de- velopmental periods. In looking at Erikson’s eight stages of development, we are pri- marily concerned with what we might anticipate in the case of a cli- ent who was affected by familial substance abuse during particular developmental stages. Children develop, at least partly, in response to their environment.

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  Human Behavior Theory

  A Diversity Framework

  • Roberta Greene(Author)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  He cautioned that practitioners can misconstrue closeness between family members, particularly mother and child, among many Latinos or Asian-American families. Similarly, among many minority adolescents, autonomy is not determined solely by moving out of the home. Rather, it is expected that family members will continue to live in extended households. Critique of Life Stage Models of Development Erikson’s (1959) most important and best known contribution to personality theory is his model of eight stages of ego development. In this life cycle approach, he proposed that development is determined by shifts in instinctual or biological energy, occurs in stages, and centers around a series of eight psychosocial crises. As each stage emerges, a psychosocial crisis fosters change within the person and in his or her expanding interconnections between self and environment. Crises offer the opportunity for new experiences and demand a “radical change in perspective,” or a new orientation toward oneself and the world (Erikson, 1963, p. 212). The result is an “ever-new configuration that is the growing personality” (Erikson, 1959, p. 57). Erikson emphasized that one stage of development builds on the successes of previous stages. Difficulties in resolving earlier psychosocial issues may foreshadow further difficulties in later stages. Each stage of development is distinguished by particular characteristics that differentiate it from preceding and succeeding stages (Newman and Newman, 1987). The notion that development occurs in unique stages, each building on the previous one and having its own emphasis or underlying structural organization, is called stage theory (Figure 5.1). Erikson argued that personality is a function of the outcome of each life stage. The psychological outcome of a crisis is a blend of ego qualities resting between two contradictory extremes or polarities

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  Human Behavior Theory

  A Diversity Framework

  • Nancy Kropf, Roberta R. Greene, Nancy Kropf(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  4Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development: Different Lenses Nancy P. Kropf Roberta R. Greene

  The phenomenon and the concept of social organization, and its bearing on the individual ego was, thus, for the longest time, shunted off by patronizing tributes to the existence of “social factors.” (Erikson, 1959, p. 18)

  One of the most important professional judgments social workers are called on to make in assessment is whether a client’s behavior is appropriate to his or her stage of development. The many questions to be addressed include ascertaining when and why a certain behavior began, how long it has persisted, whether the behavior is acceptable in a sociocultural group or related to a client’s gender or ethnic background, and whether the behavior interferes with one or more of a client’s roles (Northen, 1987).

  The theorist who has provided one of the most widely used approaches to answering these questions and who made a major contribution to the conceptualization of a developmental approach to ego mastery is Erik Erikson. Erikson was one of the few great personality theorists (Carl Jung was another) to view development as a lifelong process (Hogan, 1976). Erikson proposed that development occurs in eight life stages, starting at birth and ending with old age and death. He viewed each stage of development as a new plateau for the developing self or ego to gain and restore a sense of mastery within the context of social factors (Greene, 2008).

  In contrast to Sigmund Freud, Erikson is noted for his attention to social phenomena (Erikson, 1974). To account for social forces, Erikson turned to social anthropology, ecology, and comparative education for social concepts. According to Greene (2008), in keeping with his emphasis on the social world, Erikson reformulated the concept of ego identity

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  Psychology for Actors

  Theories and Practices for the Acting Process

  • Kevin Page(Author)
  • 2018(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  While many have grouped him with the neo-Freudians, Erikson himself preferred the more neutral title of post-Freudian (Frager & Fadiman, 2005, p. 175). As with many of the early psychoanalysts who followed Freud, Erikson both accepted and criticized Freud’s theories, and ultimately expanded them into areas far beyond Freud’s original limited vision. Erikson’s three major innovations to Freud’s theories included the idea that along with stages of psychosexual development, individuals also go through simultaneous psychosocial and ego-development stages; personality development continues throughout a person’s life span, and is not wholly fixed after early childhood; and that each stage of development can have either a positive (healthy) or negative (neurotic) outcome that affects all following stages. In Erikson’s model, each stage of development culminates in a crisis between two potential extremes that must be successfully solved in order to move on to the next stage. In solving this developmental crisis, the individual gains a particular competence or virtue that is useful (in its healthy versions) during all later stages of growth. In addition to his life span developmental model, Erikson introduced the notions of identity and identity crisis into psychology and other social sciences. Identity, for Erikson, was a broad and inclusive term that included the ego as a central agency or organizing principle for the personality, the sense of individuality and continuity of experience, as well as the process of identifying and internalizing the rules and ideals of social groups with which the individual might be affiliated. An identity crisis is a mental state where the individual, even if only on a temporary basis, has lost or is in between a solid sense of identity and appropriate social affiliation. Erikson first identified these concepts when working with World War II veterans in a rehabilitation clinic in San Francisco

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  Adult Personality Development

  Volume 1: Theories and Concepts

  • Lawrence S. Wrightsman(Author)
  • 1994(Publication Date)
  • SAGE Publications, Inc

    (Publisher)

  4

  Erikson’s Theoryof Psychosocial Development

                 Anything that grows has a ground plan, and out of this ground plan the parts arise, each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have risen to form a functioning whole.

  Erik H. Erikson

  That type of approach that sees personality developing through a series of stages dominates this and the next three chapters. After evaluating Erik Erikson’s conception in this chapter, we examine in Chapter 5 the utility of psychobiography as an explanation of personality, and in Chapters 6 and 7 other major explanations that rely on psychosocial stages. Although different stage theorists highlight different qualities, they possess a similarity in basic perspective. In general these conceptions view each stage or period as qualitatively different, with relatively abrupt shifts from stage to stage. Each of these stages is assumed to build on the earlier ones, and a successful reaction to the crisis or major task of each stage, in effect, gives the person the capabilities necessary to attack the conflicts of the next stages. Thus each new stage provides a wholly new level of structural integration. But an unsuccessful or inadequate resolution of one “crisis” hinders the growth preferred at each subsequent stage unless some special intervention occurs (Dacey, 1982).

  Erikson’s Backgroundand Intellectual Development

  Erik Erikson’s life is so illustrative of Chapter 3 ’s conclusion that theorists’ concepts derive from their own experiences, it is worth detailed review.

  Erikson’s Life

  The man who is now named Erik Homburger Erikson was born in 1902 in Frankfurt, Germany. He grew up in Karlsruhe, in southern Germany, as the son of a pediatrician, Dr. Theodor Homburger, and his wife, Karla, formerly named Abrahamsen. Erikson’s mother was a native of Copenhagen, Denmark. The circumstances of Erikson’s birth are not clear; Wright (1982) states that Erikson’s Danish father abandoned his mother. Elkind (1982) notes that “not long after his birth his [real] father died” (p. 14). But this may be a rather sanitized version; Erikson has been reluctant to reveal the facts of his early life. Only when he was in his seventies did he state the following: “All through my earlier childhood, they kept secret the fact that my mother had been married previously, and that I was the son of a Dane who had abandoned her before my birth” (Erikson, 1975, p. 27).

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  Theories of Personality

  • Duane P. Schultz; Sydney Ellen Schultz, Duane Schultz, Sydney Schultz(Authors)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  Ten years later he returned to Harvard to teach a graduate seminar and a popular undergraduate course on the human life cycle, retiring in 1970. At the age of 84, Erikson published a book about old age. Even after a lifetime of accomplishments, honors, and accolades, however, his daughter wrote that he still felt disappointed with what he had achieved. “ It was still a source of shame to this celebrated man that he had been an illegitimate child ” (Bloland, 2005, p. 51). LOG ON Erik Erikson Various sites provide biographical information, discussions of his theory, research on rel-evant concepts, and links to other resources. Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development Erikson divided the growth of the personality into eight psychosocial stages . The first four are similar to Freud ’ s oral, anal, phallic, and latency stages. The major difference between their theories is that Erikson emphasized psychosocial correlates, whereas Freud focused on biological factors. psychosocial stages of development To Erikson, eight succes-sive stages encom-passing the life span. At each stage, we must cope with a crisis in either an adaptive or a maladaptive way. 162 The Life-Span Approach Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The Role of Genetics and the Environment Erikson suggested that the developmental process was governed by what he called the epigenetic principle of maturation . By this he meant that inherited forces are the deter-mining characteristics of the developmental stages.

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  Theories of Development

  Concepts and Applications

  • William Crain(Author)
  • 2015(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  7 we saw that Piaget and Kohlberg believed that cognitive stages should meet several criteria. Erikson’s stages deal more with emotional development, but they basically meet the same criteria. That is, the stages (1) describe qualitatively different behaviors, (2) refer to general issues, (3) unfold in an invariant sequence, and (4) are culturally universal. Let us examine these points in turn.

  1. The Stages Refer to Qualitatively Different Behavior Patterns .   If development were just a matter of gradual quantitative change, any division into stages would be arbitrary. Erikson’s stages, however, give us a good sense of how behavior is qualitatively different at different points. Children at the autonomy stage sound very different from those at the trust stage; they are much more independent. Children at the initiative stage are different again. Whereas children who are establishing a sense of autonomy defy authority and keep others out, children with a sense of initiative are more daring and imaginative, running vigorously about, making big plans, and initiating new activities. Behavior has a distinctive flavor at each stage.

  2. The Stages Describe General Issues .   As I have emphasized, stages refer to general characteristics or issues. Erikson went beyond Freud’s relatively specific focus on body zones and attempted to delineate the general issues at each period. At the oral stage, for example, he showed that it is not just the stimulation of this zone that is important but the general mode of taking in and, more generally still, the development of a sense of trust in one’s providers. Similarly, at each stage Erikson tried to isolate the most general issue faced by the individual in the social world.

  3. The Stages Unfold in an Invariant Sequence

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  The Handy Psychology Answer Book

  • Lisa J. Cohen(Author)
  • 2016(Publication Date)
  • Visible Ink Press

    (Publisher)

  What does psychology have to say about life span development? Psychology has long been concerned with the changes people undergo as they travel through their lives. From the time of our birth throughout our adulthood, our minds go through enormous changes and those changes unfold in more or less predictable stages. Moreover, these changes occur across multiple domains, including cognitive, emotional, social, self, and sexual lines of development. While psychology has considered child development since the early twentieth century, more recent work has looked at adult development as well. What are the major theories of child development and why are they important? Several psychological theories cover different domains of child development. Sigmund Freud developed a theory of the psychosexual stages of childhood, Erik Erikson translated Freud’s psychosexual stages into a theory of emotional and social development, and Jean Piaget wrote about intellectual development. While aspects of these theories may not hold up so well in light of contemporary research, they have all had enormous influence on applied psychology, particularly clinical and educational psychology, as well as on our culture at large. Are there theories of adult development? While the theories of child development are better known, there are also several theories of how adults change across the life span. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages extend across the entire life span. Daniel Levinson and Roger Gould have also written about adult development. How can we compare the major developmental stage theories of Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, and Margaret Mahler? The table below summarizes the major psychological theories of how people develop from earliest infancy into late adulthood. All of these theories propose that children develop through a series of predictable stages that occur at specific ages. Major developmental stage theories. What are Freud’s psychosexual stages?

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  Identity in Adolescence 4e

  The Balance between Self and Other

  • Laura Ferrer-Wreder, Jane Kroger(Authors)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  At times, identity referred to a structure or a configuration; at other times, it referred to a process. Still on other occasions, identity was viewed as both a conscious subjective experience as well as an unconscious entity. Roazen (2000, p. 438) noted that despite Erikson’s capacity for insight, his writing could also be “subtle, elusive, and sometimes hard to follow.” In a rather candid comment given during a radio interview, Erikson himself stated, “I think one could be more precise than I am, or than I am able to be. I very much feel that scientific training and logic would have helped a lot” 32 Adolescence as identity synthesis (Erikson, cited in Stevens, 1983, p. 112). Yet it is this very breadth of phenomena captured through Erikson’s formulations of identity that many social scientists have suggested makes the construct more amenable to research than much of psy- chodynamic theory. Wallerstein (2014) also argued that Erikson’s life-cycle stage scheme should regard optimal stage resolutions as aspirational endpoints, rather than essential steps toward optimal functioning; varying degrees of success in this process, he suggested, give rise to our uniquely individual characters. Empirical validation of the psychosocial issues addressed at different stages that were described by Erikson has been questioned by some critics. Ciaccio (1971) was one of the first investigators to test whether or not conflicts purported by Erikson to be inherent in some of the early developmental stages were actually at issue for groups of boys aged 5, 8, and 11 years old. Although psychosocial strengths or attitudes did seem to progress with age in the sequence described by Erikson, the negative aspects (or crises) of the stages did not find such confirma- tion.

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