Psychology
Ethical considerations in research
Ethical considerations in research involve ensuring that the rights and well-being of participants are protected. This includes obtaining informed consent, maintaining confidentiality, and minimizing potential harm. Researchers must also consider the potential impact of their studies on the broader community and adhere to ethical guidelines and regulations set forth by professional organizations and institutional review boards.
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12 Key excerpts on "Ethical considerations in research"
eBook - ePub- Geoffrey R. Marczyk, David DeMatteo, David Festinger(Authors)
- 2010(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
Eight Ethical considerations in research In the previous chapters, we reviewed many of the methodological issues that should be considered when conducting research. We discussed how researchers should begin their research endeavors by generating relevant questions, formulating clear and testable hypotheses, and selecting appropriate and practical research designs. By adhering to the scientific method, researchers can, in due course, obtain valid and reliable findings that may advance scientific knowledge. Unavoidably, however, to advance knowledge in this manner it is often necessary to impinge upon the rights of individuals. Virtually all studies with human participants involve some degree of risk. These risks may range from minor discomfort or embarrassment caused by somewhat intrusive or provocative questions (e.g., questions about sexual practices, drug and alcohol use) to much more severe effects on participants’ physical or emotional well-being. These risks present researchers with an ethical dilemma regarding the degree to which participants should be placed at risk in the name of scientific progress. A number of ethical codes have been developed to provide guidance and establish principles to address such ethical dilemmas. These codes include federally mandated regulations promulgated by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (Title 45, Part 46 of the Code of Federal Regulations), as well as those developed for specific fields of study, such as the APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002). These codified principles are intended to ensure that researchers consider all potential risks and ethical conflicts when designing and conducting research
eBook - PDFResearch Methods
A Tool for Life
- Bernard C. Beins(Author)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
These standards are listed in Table 2.3. Of these sections, the one that pertains most to us here involves research. As the ethical guidelines pertain to research, psychologists have certain responsibilities to provide research participants with informed consent, to minimize the use of deception in research, to report research results accu- rately, and to correct any errors in reporting. One further mandate is that researchers must be willing to share their data with other researchers, pro- vided it does not violate the confidentiality promised to research participants. There are a few areas that are of special relevance to researchers. You will have to consider them when you plan your own research because you must present a proposal to your school’s IRB or to delegated representatives of that committee before you can carry out your proposed research. The committee members may approve your research as proposed, but they may Integrity—Psychologists should promote the hon- est and truthful application of the discipline in science, teaching, and practice. Justice—Psychologists must recognize the implications of their professional activity on others and strive to make the best professional judgments they can. Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity— Psychologists must recognize the dignity and value of all people and, to the fullest extent pos- sible, eliminate biases in dealing with people. TABLE 2.2 General Ethical Principles and Examples of Violations Beneficence and nonmaleficence A psychologist would be in dangerous territory in conducting research in which he or she has a financial interest because that interest could cloud professional judgment to the detriment of the participant and others. Further, psychologists who are aware that they are experiencing mental health problems may be acting unethically with clients if their own mental health may lead to poor judgment.
No longer available |Learn more- Frederick J Gravetter; Lori-Ann B. Forzano; Tim Rakow, Frederick Gravetter, Frederick Gravetter, Lori-Ann Forzano, Tim Rakow(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
Up to this point, your research project has been entirely private and personal. You have been working on your own, in the library and on the internet, gathering information and formulating an idea for a research study. Now, however, you have reached the stage where other individuals become involved with your research: first, the participants or subjects whose behaviours and responses you observe and measure during the course of the study; and second, the people who will see (and, perhaps, be influenced by) your report of the study’s results. All these individuals have a right to expect honesty and respect from you, and as you proceed through the following stages of the research process, you must accept the responsibility to behave ethically towards those who will be affected by your research. In general, ethics is the study of proper action (Ray, 2000). This chapter is devoted to research ethics in particular. Research ethics concerns the proper conduct of researchers. Researchers have observed their own conduct and reached a consensus regarding acceptable conduct for all researchers. DEFINITION Research ethics concerns the responsibility of researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who are affected by their research studies or their reports of the studies’ results. Researchers are usually governed by a set of ethical guidelines that assist them to make proper decisions and choose proper actions. In psychological research, the American Psychological Association (APA) maintains a set of ethical principles for research (APA, 2002, 2010a) as do professional bodies in other countries such as the British Psychological Society (BPS, 2014) and the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA, 2016). Consider the following examples. • Suppose that, as a topic for a research study, you are interested in brain injury that may result from repeated blows to the head such as those suffered by boxers and soccer players.
- Gary G. Ford(Author)
- 2000(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
207 11 Ethical Issues in Research Most mental health professionals conduct research during their academic training and many continue to pursue research as an important part of their professional activity. Behavioral research is generally conducted to test specific hypotheses arising from psychological theories. That is, researchers have ideas about the variables influencing some psychological phenomenon, and they test their expectations about those variables under specified conditions. Thus, the first topic to be addressed in this chapter is the ethical significance of psychological theory construction. Unfortunately, some researchers fail to recognize the tremendous importance of the ethical issues that arise in planning and conducting research, perhaps because they assume that they are simply conducting objective “science” when they take on the role of researcher. However, ethical considerations are as important in research settings as they are in clinical practice. In both cases, there is great potential for harm, as well as benefit, to those affected by the professionals’ decision making. Concern about the potential for harm to human research participants initially focused on biomedical research. However, notable instances of participants being harmed emotionally by behavioral studies, like Milgram’s (1963) research on obedience to authority, increased awareness of the ethical complexity of behavioral research. Milgram (1963) deceived the participants in his study by making them believe they were administering shocks each time the participant they were paired with (actually, a confederate of the experimenter) made an error on a paired associates learning task. Actually, no one was being shocked. Participants became increasingly upset as they were instructed to administer stronger and stronger shocks, but most of them continued to obey the experimenter’s instructions.
eBook - PDFResearch in Psychology
Methods and Design
- Kerri A. Goodwin, C. James Goodwin(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
2 The APA has established procedures for evaluating claims of ethical misconduct and for punishing those found guilty of misconduct. There is even a link allowing psychologists to report “critical incidents.” For more information, visit http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/. Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans 35 There are many similarities between the principles of the Belmont Report and those of the APA Code, including some very similar language. Now, we turn to how psychological scientists apply these ethical principles in their research. Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans In the 1960s, a portion of the original ethics code was elaborated into a separate code of ethics designed for research with human participants. Another APA committee, led by Stuart Cook, used the same critical incidents procedure and published an ethics code specifically for researchers in 1973 (APA, 1973); it was revised in 1982 (APA, 1982) and again as part of the general revi- sions of 1992 and 2002. The specific APA Standards regarding research are found in Category 8 of the code (“Research and Publications”); you can find the full text of Category 8 at the Student Companion Site. In general, the standards for research with human participants include making a judgment that the benefits of the research outweigh the costs, gaining the informed consent of those participating in the study, and treating the research volunteers well during the course of the study and after it has been completed. 3 Weighing Benefits and Costs: The Role of the IRB All research on human behavior imposes some burden on those participating in the study. At a minimum, people are asked to spend time in an experiment when they could be doing something else. At the other extreme, they are sometimes placed in potentially harmful situations.
- Stephen F. Davis, William Buskist, Stephen F. Davis, William F. Buskist(Authors)
- 2007(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications, Inc(Publisher)
103 12 E THICS OF P SYCHOLOGICAL R ESEARCH E LIZABETH V. S WENSON John Carroll University T o do the best research and to give the best service to the community and to the profession, investigators need to behave ethically. Much has been written about the ethics of research in the behavioral sciences. For research in psychology specifically, the guidelines are set forth clearly in Section 8, Research and Publication, of the American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (Ethics Code; APA, 2002). It was specifically designed to meet “ethical challenges in the new millennium” (Fisher, 2003, p. xxv). Childress, Meslin, and Shapiro (2005) call the APA Ethics Code the best-known ethics code for the con-duct of behavioral and social research (p. 265). Although it can be supplemented by other documents, the Ethics Code is the foundation for this chapter on the ethics of psycho-logical research. The Ethics Code consists of 10 sections. Within Section 8 there are 15 standards, the first 9 of which specifically refer to research, with the last 6 covering publication of research results. Of these, only one refers to psychological research with animal subjects. The standards are preceded by five general ethical principles that underlie the standards in the code and are aspirational in nature: beneficence and nonma-leficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, and respect for people’s rights and dignity (see Figure 12.1). These principles are considered to be the moral basis for the Ethics Code, and are similar to those well known in bioethics (Beauchamp & Childress, 2001). In applying the standards of the Ethics Code to spe-cific situations in research, often the correct answer is not readily apparent. The investigator then needs to apply the general ethical principles to aid in decision making, after which she should consult a colleague and then document the process.
- Bernard C. Beins, Maureen A. McCarthy(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
Deception in research is acceptable only if other alternatives are not available or appropriate. Presentation of results should accurately reflect the data. Psychologists must give appropriate credit to those involved in research but should not give credit to an individual whose work on the research was minimal. 2.3 Ethical Guidelines Created by the American Psychological Association 47 but that idea was really developed by another person, this is plagiarism. It is considered a very serious breach of ethics. If an investigator has received research money from the federal government, plagiarism can lead to severe sanctions. 2.4 Legal Requirements and Ethics in Research Shortly after World War II, the international community recognized the need for laws concerning research with people. These laws are known as the Nuremberg Code, named for the German city where they were developed. In addition to the internationally recognized Nuremberg Code, the US government has also passed laws to protect human subjects. These procedures were initially implemented in 1966 and have evolved over time (Federal policy for the protection of human subjects, 2017; Reynolds, 1979). 2.4.1 Institutional Review Boards One of the major provisions of the federal regulations mandates that any institution where people conduct research with human participants must create an Institutional Review Board, a committee that consists of at least five people, including a member of the community who is not a researcher. The IRB reviews the potential risks associated with research and either approves or disapproves projects that investigators want to carry out. Most psychological research with humans is fairly benign, with little risk associated with participation. As such, the US government has worked on revising the so-called Common Rule for protecting human subjects.
No longer available |Learn moreSingle Case Research Methodology
Applications in Special Education and Behavioral Sciences
- Jennifer R. Ledford, David L. Gast, Jennifer R. Ledford, David L. Gast(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Taylor & Francis(Publisher)
The principle of respect for persons highlighted the importance of voluntary involvement in research and explaining the purpose of a study and corresponding procedures (informed consent), as well as protection of vulnerable populations (e.g., children with intellectual disability). The principle of beneficence focused on the rules of “do no harm” and “maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms” (ratio of cost to benefits; p. 23194). Finally, the principle of justice highlighted the importance of fairness, especially as it relates to recruitment of participants and treatment of those from vulnerable or underrepresented populations. To further assure the protection of human participants, the Ethical Research Principles and Practices • 29 Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects, also known as the Common Rule, was published in 1991, which further specified the application of the principles of the Belmont Report in applied research. These examples highlight some of the work, and continued efforts, to ensure protection of human participants in research studies. The following sections present ethical issues that must be considered in applied research, describes the steps the you must go through to obtain institutional approval to conduct the- sis, dissertation, or independent research, and, then, describes the ethical guidelines researchers must follow when using SCDs to answer research questions related to the effectiveness of their instructional and treatment programs. Conducting Research in Applied Settings Prior to official approvals discussed later in the chapter, you must obtain initial permission to conduct research at a particular site. Many school systems have specific and delineated pro- cedures for requesting this permission; some smaller agencies may simply require permission from a director or board of directors. Some agencies have separate processes for practitioners (employees) and outside researchers.
eBook - PDF- Heinz Schuler(Author)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Academic Press(Publisher)
6. Clear and fair agreement must be reached on the responsibilities of both partners. Promises must be kept. 7. Experimenters must protect subjects from physical and mental harm and danger. In case of risk, they must provide information, obtain consent, and use procedures for minimizing distress. Procedures that cause serious and lasting harm may not be used. 8. Experimenters must provide debriefing, removal of misconceptions. Delay or omission increases the experimenter's responsibility to ensure that no damaging consequences occur. 9. Experimenters must detect and remove or correct undesirable conse-quences for subjects, including long-term aftereffects. 10. Confidentiality of experimental data must be maintained. Experimen-ters must reveal risks in this regard as a part of informed consent. 1 8 0 4. The Codification of Ethical Principles for Psychological Research According to the preamble, these 10 rules were to be interpreted and applied in the light of the explanations and the discussion of sample cases that accom-pany the rules. Most of the individual statements in this version were more clearly binding than in earlier versions (e.g., 'the investigator is required to. . . , . . . is responsible for . . . , . . . has the obligation to. . .). The total number of responsibilities also increased; according to the authors of the document, it increased to the point of exhaustive coverage. The explanatory comments and sample cases accompanying the rules made it clear that the rules could only be applied appropriately when connections among the individual principles were considered, as well as the particular methodolog-ical requirements of the individual case. However, only in extreme cases did the conclusions in the comments lack ambiguity. For example, one planned study was rejected as unethical because it was designed to test experimentally the effects of long-term protein deprivation on the intellectual development of children (APA, 1973, pp. 34-35).
eBook - PDF- Dana S. Dunn(Author)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
10 Explanations of how the data collected during the research will be safeguarded and how the participants’ anonymity will be maintained. 11 A copy of the informed consent form for the research. Ethical Issues in Social Psychological Research 63 taking part in the research entails, including any potential risks or benefits associated with doing so. Individuals must be given enough information about a study so that they can make a conscious decision about whether to actually take part in it. As we noted earlier, there is always some degree of risk in any research experience; even a minor risk is still a risk. Where laboratory-based research is concerned, the key issue linked with informed consent is an individual’s right to quit the study at any time and without any penalty. When individuals remove themselves from taking part in a study, they are retracting their consent. Established ethical guidelines clearly state that any participant can withdraw from a study at any point in time and without any need to provide an explanation for doing so. In practice, of course, an individual who elects to end his or her participation is apt to explain why, if only briefly. Still, the ethics of experimentation are clear: The investigator must honor a participant’s decision to withdraw without question or protest. If any credit or other reward is part of the study (course credit is typical, though some researchers pay volunteers a few dollars for their time), the experimenter must graciously give it to anyone who quits early. Most importantly, the option to withdraw from the study at any time must be clearly explained at the outset of the study’s procedure. Thus, participants are informed and reminded of their fundamental right before anything happens.
eBook - PDFA Handbook for Social Science Field Research
Essays & Bibliographic Sources on Research Design and Methods
- Ellen Perecman, Sara R. Curran(Authors)
- 2006(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications, Inc(Publisher)
First, follow-up is rare, and subsequent required reporting to the IRB panel is limited. Second, the scope of ethical considerations does not completely address the nature of social science research, especially if the pro-ject is of some duration, the initial approach is exploratory and open-ended, and the social dimensions of the project are complicated. As research pro-jects lengthen and relationships with those in the locale deepen, the research Chapter 11 ♦ Research Ethics are Essential —— 205 may become richer, but the burdens on the individual respondents and the community may be taken for granted. Or if the research is exploratory, there may be heightened concerns about whether the research procedures will really reveal anything new or open up possibilities for taking research in unanticipated directions that may have subsequent ethical considerations warranting some ethical review. But even more important, social science research is necessarily socially interactive, and by definition, ethical stances and expectations will be invoked in the development of trustworthy rela-tionships between researchers and those in the research site. Thus the weight of ethical responsibilities lies with the researcher and the coping skills gained through disciplinary training (Lederman 2004). For other formal guidance on ethical concerns that exist within the regula-tory domain and beyond it, researchers can sometimes turn to their discipli-nary codes of ethics. These, however, vary dramatically across disciplines, and for some disciplines they are nonexistent. Anthropology, sociology, history, political science, and psychology have well-publicized codes. 17 Each of these disciplines offers guidelines about the ethical issues pertaining to its method-ological approaches as well other dimensions of the profession and discipline.
eBook - PDFResearch Ethics in the Real World
Issues and Solutions for Health and Social Care Professionals
- Tony Long, Martin Johnson(Authors)
- 2006(Publication Date)
- Churchill Livingstone(Publisher)
There are, then, many potential harms that can befall the research participant however well informed and willing they may be, and these need to be considered carefully by the researcher when designing the study. For the most part these issues fall broadly into three areas of concern, which will be considered in more detail now. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION IN RESEARCH Showing respect for individuals and groups and upholding their rights includes allowing them to make decisions for themselves about issues that impact on them. Accordingly, it is generally held that undertaking research on or with individuals normally should be pursued only with their full knowledge and consent. In this sense consent means that the individual has access to adequate information about the proposed study and their involvement in it, that they are able to make a reasoned decision as to whether or not to participate, and that they are not under undue pressure to be involved. These three elements are all essential for the participant’s consent to be valid. Competence Competence relates to the ability of an individual to process information about an issue or topic, to reason about the relevant factors and their own preferences or values, and to express their consequent judgement or decision (even if this be foolish, capricious or ill-advised). Importantly, as will be seen shortly, WHAT ARE THE ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH? 50 competence is best viewed not as an all-or-nothing concept, but as a variable quality relative to the circumstances of the case and the nature of the associated risk of harm. For the researcher the task is to gauge the seriousness of the decision to be made and the degree of competence required on the part of the individual for consent to be considered valid. Children are often too readily dismissed as being too immature to be competent.
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