Eye Contact

9 Key excerpts on "Eye Contact"

• 

  eBook - ePub

  Beyond the Therapeutic Relationship

  Behavioral, Biological, and Cognitive Foundations of Psychotherapy

  • Frederic J. Leger, Frederic J Leger(Authors)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  Along similar lines of reasoning, from the field of interpersonal communication, Kendon (1967) suggests that direction of gaze may play a “crucial role” (p. 23) in the initiation and maintenance of social encounters. In citing the sociological work of Goffman (1964), Kendon observes that where an individual looks may be an indicator of his social accessibility. He further explains: “This is because whether or not a person is willing to have his eye ‘caught’, whether or not, that is, he is willing to look back into the eyes of someone who is already looking at him, is one of the principal signals by which people indicate to each other their willingness to begin an encounter.” In this respect, he adds, “It seems that it is through the mutually held gaze that two people commonly establish their ‘openness’ to one another's communications” (p. 23). In other words, as Knapp (1978) reports from his nonverbal behavioral research, Eye Contact signals that the “communication channels are open and an obligation to communicate exists” (p. 212) while simultaneously signifying “a free flow of communication and mutual openness” (p. 307). Finally, the study of Hess (1975a), which concludes that during Eye Contact, “pupil size serves as a signal between individuals” (p. 110), usually at a nonconscious level in interpersonal interaction, again seems to argue for greater scrutiny of this variable in psychotherapy.

  From a sociological perspective, Goffman (1964) also maintains that when two or more people interact, they position themselves in an “eye-to-eye ecological huddle” (p. 95) by which the participants maximize the monitorings of each other's perceivings. He also suggests that it may be through the maintenance of mutual gaze that the participants express their continued commitment to the social interaction. In quoting George Simmel, Goffman (1964) expands upon this phenomenon which appears to be nonconsciously and culturally imbedded in interpersonal interaction:

  Of the special sense organs, the eye has a uniquely sociological function. The union and interaction of individuals is based upon mutual glances. This is perhaps the most direct and purest reciprocity which exists anywhere. This highest psychic reaction, however, in which glances of eye to eye unite men, crystallizes into no objective structure; the unity which momentarily arises between two persons is present in the occasion and is dissolved in the function. So tenacious and subtle is this union that it can only be maintained by the shortest and straightest line between the eyes, and the smallest deviation from it, the slightest glance aside, completely destroys the unique character of this union. (p. 93)

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Emotional Expression

  • G. Collier, Gary James Collier(Authors)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Psychology Press

    (Publisher)

  Looking at someone often shows a desire to interact with them, but interaction does not take place until the person looks back and Eye Contact is established. Most of us have had the feeling of being watched. We turn around and catch a brief glimpse of a strange pair of eyes that look in our direction, then break Eye Contact and quickly look away. Experiences like these usually lead to nothing. They are very different from those much rarer occasions when a person holds our gaze and smiles briefly or frowns.

  Since Eye Contact is literally our first contact with another person, the exchange that takes place (although only a few seconds in length) will often determine the first impression. Someone who breaks Eye Contact quickly is perceived very differently than the person who maintains Eye Contact for an extended period of time. Eye Contact, like gaze in general, is ambiguous when taken out of context and may signal attraction, dominance, or aggression depending on the situation and other clues given off at the same time. The meaning of a glance depends on the facial expression. Extended Eye Contact with someone who frowns or has a deadpan face can be very upsetting, whereas Eye Contact and a friendly face can be seen as an invitation to a more pleasant encounter.

  Most of the research on Eye Contact (like that associated with body movements and posture) has focused on dominance and interpersonal attraction. There is also a considerable amount of research on the use of eye behavior for regulating speech. This literature is often confounded with the literature on dominance, however, because the amount of Eye Contact during conversation depends on the relative status of the speaker and listener,

  Interpersonal Attraction

  Maintaining Eye Contact often signals a desire to interact, but the type of interaction may be pleasant or unpleasant. The relationship between Eye Contact and attraction is reasonably straightforward. Two people who like each other not only gaze more often but maintain Eye Contact for a greater period (e.g., Efran, 1968; Efran & Broughton, 1966; Exline & Winters, 1965; Russo, 1975). This effect seems to occur both with strangers meeting for the first time and with couples in well-established, long-term relationships. Rubin (1970) found more Eye Contact among couples scoring high on a scale of romantic love. Females in this study spent more time looking than males and the time spent in Eye Contact was determined by how long the males spent returning the gaze. Russo (1975) studied children in kindergarten and elementary school and found that the total percentage of time spent in Eye Contact did not vary with friendship. What did vary was the length of Eye Contact. Friends looked at each other for longer

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Applied Organizational Communication

  Theory and Practice in a Global Environment

  • Thomas E. Harris, Mark D. Nelson(Authors)
  • 2018(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  The showing of emotions through overt actions, such as crying, stands as a clear violation of most organizational cultures. The impact of tears depends on the field you’re in, the company’s culture and what’s tolerated in a particular setting. In highly creative fields such as TV, public relations, and advertising, people aren’t expected to display as much self-control as in banking, law, accounting, and corporate business. In addition, studies show that there is a double standard regarding crying at work based on the traditional “men don’t cry but women do” bias (Adler & Towne, 2003). Many males withhold overt emotion and simply strive to get even or dodge the bullet, whereas some females are more likely to cry to express anger or frustration. The point is that the behavior is examined in light of the expectations established by the cultural norms and not the legitimacy of the behavior itself.

  Eye Contact

  Eyes have a special place in folklore and are often seen as an entryway to deeper meaning. People are accused of having shifty or evil eyes or observed as possessing bedroom or laughing eyes. Eye Contact can express interest, attraction, intimacy, dominance, persuasiveness, aggressiveness, and credibility.

  Why do the eyes have such an impact? First, Eye Contact serves as simultaneous communication because it allows people to send and receive messages at the same time. This power to engage in an ongoing communication pattern may account for Eye Contact’s popularity as a potential technique for increasing influence and judging the other’s character. Direct Eye Contact is seen as an indication of honesty and credibility. In seminars we have conducted with professional interviewers, we found that they are convinced that direct Eye Contact, which should be distinguished from staring, is an indication of self-confidence and forthrightness. Eye Contact ranks second only to dress as an important nonverbal factor in an interview.

  Too often, we attempt to determine if someone is being truthful by observing Eye Contact. “Three major statistical summaries of deception research show no statistically significant, overall relationship between Eye Contact and deception” (Anderson, 1999, p. 285). In fact, generally “the evidence linking Eye Contact and attributions of personality traits are correlational” meaning there is no direct link (Droney & Brooks, 1993, p. 715). In addition, individuals attempting to deceive others are probably aware of the importance of Eye Contact, and studies have shown that deceivers may actually increase Eye Contact (Anderson, 1999).

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Children's Unspoken Language

  • Gwyneth Doherty-Sneddon(Author)
  • 2003(Publication Date)
  • Jessica Kingsley Publishers

    (Publisher)

  Chapter 4

  Eye Gaze

  For humans as well as many other animals the eyes are a very significant part of the face. We are inherently interested in other people’s eyes and deeply influenced by them. As beings that reflect upon the minds of others, we often treat them as ‘windows to the soul’. This folk saying reflects the importance of eyes in mediating social relationships in almost all cultures across the world. Eye gaze serves many functions in human communication and social relationships, ranging from the social and emotional to the intellectual. Amongst the messages eyes send are love, hate, dominance, empathy, and even whether we are concentrating. Furthermore, gaze behaviour plays an important role in many aspects of child development. This chapter will describe the developmental and evolutionary significance of gaze, in particular in relation to mental development. I will then describe some social functions of eye gaze, finishing off by looking at contemporary work investigating links between children’s patterns of gazing behaviour and their thought processes.

  When we look at something or someone we gain information; for example, where that person is in relation to us, what they look like and whether they are looking at us. However, the very fact that we are looking at the person provides a potential source of information for others. Looking at someone is interpreted in a number of ways depending on the circumstances: as interest, threat, liking, attention and wanting. So the very act of gazing, whether we intend it or not, sends information to other people, giving them valuable information about our focus of attention, thoughts, wishes and desires. This sort of information plays a critical role in the mental and social development of children, including language acquisition. Furthermore, as we will see, our observations of where and when children look provide valuable clues as to their underlying intellectual state.

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - PDF

  The Management of Procedure-Induced Anxiety in Children

  • Richard Martin(Author)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Cambridge University Press

    (Publisher)

  These glances tend to be more frequent when listening as opposed to speaking, conforming to a ratio of about 3:1 respectively (36). An individual who is speaking will often look away at the beginning of a sentence or utterance and look up when that part of their speech has finished. They then look away again when embarking on the next element of their interaction or continue looking up and holding Eye Contact, communicating that they have finished. Eye Contact and frequency of glances is heavily influenced by proximity or proxemics. When there is significant distance between individuals who are communicating, Eye Contact is desired to reaffirm the connection, and as a consequence, glances will be significantly more intense. Prolonged Eye Contact in close proximity creates discomfort and can generate a sense of anxiety, so Eye Contact will become less frequent under these circumstances unless intimacy has been established. An extreme example of this is seen if two strangers are forced into close proximity. Under such circumstances they will actively avoid Eye Contact. Eye Contact brings with it the imperative to recognise the other as a sign of social respect and acknowledgment of their existence. If Eye Contact is made under such circumstances, an individual will often fulfil this responsibility by producing a tepid smile, almost stating, ‘Apologies for making Eye Contact. Now that I have, I must recognise your existence but I don’t intend to bother you’ (37, 38). This is all very interesting, but what is the relevance with regards to the management of PIA? 20 Non-verbal Communication We can see that excessive Eye Contact can generate anxiety. Equally, reduced levels of Eye Contact will tend to communicate disinterest or that you are hiding something. If a child or family member feels that you are disinterested, it will significantly damage rapport. If they feel you are hiding something, both rapport and their trust in you may be damaged.

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Making Friends PreK-3

  A Social Skills Program for Inclusive Settings

  • Ruth Herron Ross, Beth Roberts-Pacchione(Authors)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Skyhorse

    (Publisher)

  UNIT 2 Using Appropriate Eye Contact for Interaction

  “T he eyes are the windows to the soul,” the proverb says. That is why Eye Contact deserves a unit of its own. This is the beginning of all interactions. Eye Contact with infants is the key form of communication. It is how they learn about the world around them. Children use Eye Contact to develop their perception of trust and what is a constant in the world. Through the years of development, children use Eye Contact to explore and learn. It is key in learning the forms of communication such as language, gesture, and expression. Without Eye Contact, our ability to gain information about the world around us would be limited, and the possibility of social mistakes would be greatly increased.

  The key to success in this program is an emphasis on developing eye-contact frequency and duration. There are many factors that come into play when we see children who are not making Eye Contact. Some of these include visual sensitivity, auditory sensitivity, sensory overstimulation, or even a lack of understanding of the role of Eye Contact in interaction. We need to remember, as those responsible for the social development of a child, that if the child is not making Eye Contact, he or she is not engaging, attending, or focusing.

  Children are tricky when it comes to avoiding Eye Contact. They are more vested in avoidance than we are. This avoidance is a safety mechanism for them in some form, and therefore, they will try to hold onto it as much as they can.

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - PDF

  Self-Making Man

  A Day of Action, Life, and Language

  • Jürgen Streeck(Author)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Cambridge University Press

    (Publisher)

  Arguably, this is also how partici- pants take note of each other’s visual and cognitive orientation. 13 Eye-to-eye communication shows the simplest organization among the bodily modalities, much simpler than, for example, facial action or gesture, but also far more restrictively regulated. While speaker and listener have some, perhaps unequally distributed, opportunities to let their gaze wan- der, focus somewhere else, or glance around, at certain determinate points during utterance sequences, they must turn their gaze to each other, lest the conversation derails, because the course of action under way is no longer treated as ‘licensed’. Gaze leaves little room for individuation, and non- standard gaze behavior is often taken as a warrant for attributions of deviance (autism, shame, dishonesty, and so on). Yet, we also know that the regulation of conversational gaze is not a human universal. Gaze aver- sion and avoidance, for example, are topoi in anthropological research, and gaze (or restrictions on gaze) is often related to social stratification. Hussein’s gaze behavior appears entirely familiar to us. Whether this is the result of cultural adaptation to the U.S. or we witness the practices of his urban, multicultural, and modern homeland, I do not know. 13 The relationship between gaze, visual focus, and head orientation would need a more precise investigation; for example, a distinct feature of human eyes is the white around the retina, which makes gaze direction a more conspicuous phenomenon. Humans thus have a more precise view of one another’s gaze than other primates, who lack this feature and therefore seem to rely on head orientation to gauge one another’s visual and cognitive focus. See Call and Tomasello (2005). 2.11 Conclusion 119

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Can the World Afford Autistic Spectrum Disorder?

  Nonverbal Communication, Asperger Syndrome and the Interbrain

  • Digby Tantam(Author)
  • 2009(Publication Date)
  • Jessica Kingsley Publishers

    (Publisher)

  2

  What is the importance of gaze and shared attention?

  Most human heads are hairless and shiny on the upper side of the front and hairy and matt on the back.19 Humans in areas of the world where there is less sun to reflect on the shiny bits have developed pallor instead. One way or another it’s usually easy to tell which way a human head is pointed from the proportion of the contrasting front and back that is visible.

  The human eyes have also migrated, like those of other great apes, to the front of the head. One advantage of this position is that it makes stereoscopic vision possible. Another is that it is possible for someone to know the direction of gaze of a person with whom they are in a vis-à-vis . In particular, this positioning facilitates knowing whether the other person is looking into one’s eyes.20 Just to make absolutely sure of this, there is a brain circuit that inhibits looking almost, but not quite, at another person’s eyes.21

  This brain circuit, like other components of nonverbal communication, does not seem to work as effectively in people with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). Just in itself, this may be enough to make them uncomfortable conversationalists. If someone that one is speaking with looks at one’s eyelid, or even one’s ear, should you assume that they are looking at you, or that they are looking away? Either way has important implications, as this chapter will show.

  Michael Argyle, a pioneering UK researcher on nonverbal communication, distinguished gaze and mutual gaze, the latter being when two people gaze at each other’s eyes and so make Eye Contact. Gaze, according to Argyle (Argyle, Lefevbre and Cook, 1974), serves three purposes: to get information from a target on which we direct our eyes, to send signals to accompany speech, and to control the flow of conversation.

  Speakers tend to concentrate on what they are saying and spend less time gathering information from their listeners: the reverse is true for listeners. Or, at least, the reverse is true for neurotypical listeners. Many people with an ASD look more when they are speaking than when they are listening. Gaze is also used, along with facial expression and gesture, to ‘punctuate’ speech, highlighting key points. Again people with an ASD seem to use fewer of these ‘paralinguistic signals’. Finally, these two uses of gaze blend into the third: controlling the flow of conversation, or ‘turn-taking’. It is impolite to speak when someone else is speaking, and yet we manage to speak in turns even when both participants are keen to talk, and less keen to listen. One way in which this is achieved is that the speaker looks up at the listener she or he chooses as the person next in turn and if that listener looks back, the speaker is likely to yield the turn to them. Turn-taking often goes wrong in people with an ASD too. In fact, one of the social problems mentioned by people with the mildest Asperger syndrome is that they tend to ‘go on and on’ in a conversation, often on a topic of their own choice, without letting other people have their say.

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - PDF

  Nonverbal Communication

  • Judith A. Hall, Mark L. Knapp, Judith A. Hall, Mark L. Knapp(Authors)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • De Gruyter Mouton

    (Publisher)

  Ekman and Friesen (1969) regarded Eye Contact as one of the primary regulators of human social interaction, though they later neglected to mention its potential contribution in the expression of emotion (Ekman and Friesen 1975). Ekman and Oster (1982), however, later did also express surprise over the dearth of such research. Researchers who, early on, did suggest that gaze might exert an influence on emotion processing, tended to agree that direct eye gaze might increase the inten- sity of all emotional facial displays. This was not entirely without empirical sup- port, although such evidence, as will be seen, was relatively indirect and limited in scope. Most often cited in this regard were two studies conducted by Kimble and colleagues (Kimble and Olszewski 1980; Kimble, Forte, and Yoshikawa 1981). There were, however, two major limitations to this research. The first is that these studies were encoding, not decoding studies. In other words, participants were not asked to rate the intensity of emotion displayed on faces exhibiting direct versus averted gaze, but rather were asked to act out “strong” versus “weak” intensity emotional displays of anger and joy. The second, and more serious, limitation is that the only dimension of emotional experience considered important was “valence” (positive versus negative) of the enacted display. This perspective assumes that if an effect can be shown for both a positive (joy) and a negative (anger) emotional display, then it is likely that such an effect will generalize across all instances of specific emotions. As already pointed out above, however, there are other meaningful dimensions along which to differentiate emotions, namely approach/avoidance motivational orientation. For example, on the one hand, anger and joy are distinguished by valence; on the other hand, they share an underlying “approach oriented” behav- ioral motivation.

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book