Wiley Interpretation and Application of International Financial Reporting Standards 2011

Bruce Mackenzie, Danie Coetsee, Tapiwa Njikizana, Raymond Chamboko

• Editore: Wiley
• Anno: 2011
• ISBN:
  9781118037096
• Edizione: 8
• Argomento: Business
• Categoria: Accounting Standards

A one-stop resource for understanding current International Financial Reporting Standards

As the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) makes significant strides in achieving global convergence of accounting standards worldwide, the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) become extremely important to the accounting world. Wiley IFRS 2011 provides the necessary tools for understanding the IASB standards and offers practical guidance and expertise on how to use and implement them.

• Covers the most recent International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and IFRIC interpretations
• An indispensable guide to IFRS compliance
• Provides a complete explanation of all IFRS requirements, coupled with copious illustrations of how to apply the rules in complex, real-world situations

Written by two well-known international experts on the subject with hands-on experience in applying these standards, this book is an indispensable guide to IFRS compliance.

1

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS

The year 2005 marked the beginning of a new era in global conduct of business, and the fulfillment of a thirty-year effort to create the financial reporting rules for a worldwide capital market. For during that year’s financial reporting cycle, as many as 7,000 listed companies in the 27 European Union member states, plus many others in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Russia, and South Africa were expected (in the EU, required) to produce annual financial statements in compliance with a single set of international rules—International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Many other business entities, while not publicly held and not currently required to comply with IFRS, also planned to do so, either immediately or over time, in order to conform to what is clearly becoming the new world-wide standard. Since there are about 15,000 SEC-registered companies in the USA that prepare financial statements in accordance with US GAAP (plus countless nonpublicly held companies also reporting under GAAP), the vast majority of the world’s large businesses are now reporting under one or the other of these two comprehensive systems of accounting and financial reporting rules.

There were once scores of unique sets of financial reporting standards among the more developed nations (“national GAAP”). However, most other national GAAP standards have been reduced in importance or are being phased out as nations all over the world have embraced IFRS. For example, Canada announced that Canadian GAAP (which was modeled on and very similar to US GAAP) is to be eliminated and replaced by IFRS in 2011. China required that listed companies employ IFRS beginning with their 2007 financial reporting. Many others planned to follow this same path.

2007 and 2008 proved to be watershed years for the growing acceptability of IFRS. In 2007, one of the most important developments was that the SEC dropped the reconciliation (to US GAAP) requirement that had formerly applied to foreign private registrants; thereafter, those reporting in a manner fully compliant with IFRS (i.e., without any exceptions to the complete set of standards imposed by IASB) do not have to reconcile net income and shareholders’ equity to that which would have been presented under US GAAP. In effect, the US SEC was acknowledging that IFRS was fully acceptable as a basis for accurate, transparent, meaningful financial reporting.

This easing of US registration requirements for foreign companies seeking to enjoy the benefits of listing their equity or debt securities in the US led, quite naturally, to a call by domestic companies to permit them to also freely choose between financial reporting under US GAAP and IFRS. By late 2008 the SEC had begun the process of acquiescence, first for the largest companies in those industries having (worldwide) the preponderance of IFRS adopters, and later for all publicly held companies. A new SEC chair took office in 2009, expressing a concern that the move to IFRS, if it were to occur, should perhaps move more slowly than had previously been indicated. In the authors’ view, however, any revisiting of the earlier decision to move decisively toward mandatory use of IFRS for public company financial reporting in the US will create only a minor delay, if any. Simply put, the world-wide trend to uniform financial reporting standards (for which role the only candidate is IFRS) is inexorable and will benefit all those seeking to raise capital and all those seeking to invest.

It had been highly probable that nonpublicly held US entities would have remained bound to only US GAAP for the foreseeable future, both from habit and because no other set of standards would be viewed as being acceptable. However, the body that oversees the private-sector auditing profession’s standards in the US amended its rules in 2008 to fully recognize IASB as an accounting standard-setting body (giving it equal status with the FASB), meaning that auditors and other service providers in the US may now opine (or provide other levels of assurance, as specified under pertinent guidelines) on IFRS-based financial statements. This change, coupled with the promulgation by IASB of a long-sought standard providing simplified financial reporting rules for privately held entities (described later in this chapter), has probably increased the likelihood that a broad-based move to IFRS will occur in the US within the next several years. The SEC commissioner and chair recently confirmed that they are committed to a single set of global standards and are on schedule for the 2011 determination whether to incorporate IFRS in the US for US issuers.

The impetus for the convergence of historically disparate financial reporting standards has been, in the main, to facilitate the free flow of capital so that, for example, investors in the United States will become more willing to finance business in, say, China or the Czech Republic. Having access to financial statements that are written in the same “language” would eliminate what has historically been a major impediment to engendering investor confidence, which is sometimes referred to as “accounting risk,” which adds to the already existing risks of making such cross-border investments. Additionally, the permission to list a company’s equity or debt securities on an exchange has generally been conditioned on making filings with national regulatory authorities, which have historically insisted either on conformity with local GAAP or on a formal reconciliation to local GAAP. Since either of these procedures was tedious and time-consuming, and the human resources and technical knowledge to do so were not always widely available, many otherwise anxious would-be registrants forwent the opportunity to broaden their investor bases and potentially lower their costs of capital.

The authors believe that these difficulties are soon coming to an end, however. The historic 2002 Norwalk Agreement—between the US standard setter, FASB, and the IASB—called for “convergence” of the respective sets of standards, and indeed a number of revisions of either US GAAP or IFRS have already taken place to implement this commitment, with more changes expected in the immediate future. In November 2009 the Boards confirm their aim to complete each milestone project of the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) by the end of June 2011. These milestone projects include

• Financial instruments

• Consolidations

• Derecognition

• Fair Value Measurement

• Revenue Recognition

• Leases

• Financial Instruments with Characteristics of Equity

• Financial Statement Presentation

• Other MOU Projects

• Other Joint Projects

Details of these and other projects of the standard setters are included in a separate section in each relevant chapter of this book.

It thus is anticipated that by 2011 many distinctions between US GAAP and IFRS will be eliminated, if US GAAP remains an independent set of financial reporting rules, notwithstanding that there remain challenging issues to be resolved before full convergence can occur. For one very important example, while IFRS bans the use of LIFO costing for inventories, it remains a popular financial reporting method under US GAAP because of a “conformity rule” that permits entities to use the method for tax reporting only if it is also used for general-purpose external financial reporting. In times of increasing costs, LIFO almost inevitably results in tax deferrals and is thus widely employed. US-based companies will be reluctant to fully embrace IFRS if it means that this tax strategy must be abandoned.

Origins and Early History of the IASB

Financial reporting in the developed world evolved from two broad models, whose objectives were somewhat different. The earliest systematized form of accounting regulation developed in continental Europe, starting in France in 1673. Here a requirement for an annual fair value statement of financial position was introduced by the government as a means of protecting the economy from bankruptcies. This form of accounting at the initiative of the state to control economic actors was copied by other states and later incorporated in the 1807 Napoleonic Commercial Code. This method of regulating the economy expanded rapidly throughout continental Europe, partly through Napoleon’s efforts and partly through a willingness on the part of European regulators to borrow ideas from each other. This “code law” family of reporting practices was much developed by Germany after its 1870 unification, with the emphasis moving away from market values to historical cost and systematic depreciation. It was used later by governments as the basis of tax assessment when taxes on business profits started to be introduced, mostly in the early twentieth century.

This model of accounting serves primarily as a means of moderating relationships between the individual company and the state. It serves for tax assessment, and to limit dividend payments, and it is also a means of protecting the running of the economy by sanctioning individual businesses that are not financially sound or were run imprudently. While the model has been adapted for stock market reporting and group (consolidated) structures, this is not its main focus.

The other model did not appear until the nineteenth century and arose as a consequence of the industrial revolution. Industrialization created the need for large concentrations of capital to undertake industrial projects (initially, canals and railways) and to spread risks between many investors. In this model the financial report provided a means of monitoring the activities of large businesses in order to inform their (nonmanagement) shareholders. Financial reporting for capital markets purposes developed initially in the UK, in a commonlaw environment where the state legislated as little as possible and left a large degree of interpretation to practice and for the sanction of the courts. This approach was rapidly adopted by the US as it, too, became industrialized. As the US developed the idea of groups of companies controlled from a single head office (towards the end of the nineteenth century), this philosophy of financial reporting began to become focused on consolidated accounts and the group, rather than the individual company. For different reasons, neither the UK nor the US governments saw this reporting framework as appropriate for income tax purposes, and in this tradition, while the financial reports inform the assessment process, taxation retains a separate stream of law, which has had little influence on financial reporting.

The second model of financial reporting, generally regarded as the Anglo-Saxon financial reporting approach, can be characterized as focusing on the relationship between the business and the investor, and on the flow of information to the capital markets. Government still uses reporting as a means of regulating economic activity (e.g., the SEC’s mission is to protect the investor and ensure that the securities markets run efficiently), but the financial report is aimed at the investor, not the government.

Neither of the two above-described approaches to financial reporting is particularly useful in an agricultural economy, or to one that consists entirely of microbusinesses, in the opinion of many observers. Nonetheless, as countries have developed economically (or as they were colonized by industrialized nations) they have adopted variants of one or the other of these two models.

IFRS are an example of the second, capital market-oriented, systems of financial reporting rules. The original international standard setter, the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC), was formed in 1973, during a period of considerable change in accounting regulation. In the US the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) had just been created, in the UK the first national standard setter had recently been organized, the EU was working on the main plank of its own accounting harmonization plan (the Fourth Directive), and both the UN and the OECD were shortly to create their own accounting committees. The IASC was launched in the wake of the 1972 World Accounting Congress (a five-yearly get-together of the international profession) after an informal meeting between representatives of the British profession (Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales—ICAEW) and the American profession (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants—AICPA).

A rapid set of negotiations resulted in the professional bodies of Canada, Australia, Mexico, Japan, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and New Zealand being invited to join with the US and UK to form the international body. Due to pressure (coupled with a financial subsidy) from the UK, the IASC was established in London, where its successor, the IASB, remains today.

The actual reasons for the IASC’s creation are unclear. A need for a common language of business was felt, to deal with a growing volume of international business, but other more political motives abounded also. For example, some believe that the major motivation was that the British wanted to create an international standard setter to trump the regional initiatives within the EU, which leaned heavily to the Code model of reporting, in contrast to what was the norm in the UK and almost all English-speaking nations.

In the first phase of its existence, the IASC had mixed fortunes. Once the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) was formed in 1977 (at the next World Congress of Accountants), the IASC had to fight off attempts to become a part of IFAC. It managed to resist, coming to a compromise where IASC remained independent but all IFAC members were automatically members of IASC, and IFAC was able to nominate the membership of the standard-setting Board.

Both the UN and OECD were active in international rule making in the 1970s but the IASC was successful in persuading them to leave establishment of recognition and measurement rules to the IASC. However, having established itself as the unique international rule maker, IASC encountered difficulty in persuading any jurisdiction or enforcement agency to use its rules. Although member professional bodies were theoretically committed to pushing for the use of IFRS at the national level, in practice few national bodies were influential in standard setting in their respective countries (because standards were set by taxation or other governmental bodies), and others (including the US and UK) preferred their national standards to whatever IASC ...