Making Sense of Organizational Learning

Putting Theory into Practice

Cyril Kirwan

• Editore: Routledge
• Anno: 2016
• ISBN:
  9781317102212
• Edizione: 1
• Argomento: Negocios y empresa
• Categoria: Comercio electrónico

The ability of a business to engage in real organizational learning and to do so faster and in a more sustainable way than its competitors is being increasingly seen as an essential component of success. In Making Sense of Organizational Learning, Cyril Kirwan examines the wide range of factors necessary to create and sustain organizational learning and knowledge at all levels. At the individual level, the generation of continuous learning opportunities and reflection on experiences are critically important. At the team level, it's about encouraging collaboration, team learning and the sharing of knowledge. At the organizational level, the emphasis is on building systems to capture and share knowledge and providing strategic leadership for learning. The book shows you how you can best exploit the knowledge that already exists within your organization while at the same time develop the capability of the people that work there. It deals in turn with individual learning; learning with others; learning in organizations; and in particular the role of the HR function and of line managers. Each chapter provides theoretical background and real-world examples. Diagnostic questionnaires, checklists and other tools are also included. Making Sense of Organizational Learning provides an evidence-based argument for the adoption of effective organizational learning policies and practices, and offers a real opportunity to improve performance. Thinking practitioners working in and around learning and development or organization development will find it invaluable, as will those undertaking post-graduate study in HR and related disciplines.

CHAPTER 1

FOUNDATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

The primary purpose of this short chapter is to help the reader understand the background and main approaches that have defined the field of learning as it relates to people at work. Learning in organizations (which will also be referred to as workplace learning) as it is practised today has roots in the fields of both human resource development (HRD) and adult education, with adult learning theory providing much of the foundation for HRD theory and practice. While academic views differ on whether and how these fields are related, it would appear that from a practical viewpoint each has much to offer our understanding of why and how individuals engage in learning in organizations, why and how these learning efforts succeed or fail, and what options are out there to optimize both organizational performance and individual development.

UNDERLYING PHILOSOPHIES

Yang (2004) suggests that the relationship between different philosophies underlying the fields is perhaps best described along two dimensions. The first dimension concerns the purpose of learning. At one end of the scale, it is suggested that the primary purpose of learning is to enhance personal growth and develop human potential. At the other end of the scale is the argument for a performance orientation – that learning should be used to fulfil the needs of existing tasks and roles. The second dimension indicates the focus of learning, and the roles of the individual and society in the learning process. At one end of this scale is a view that individual learners should be the focus of the process: at the other end, there is a strong emphasis on its social or organizational implications.

Thus a number of underlying philosophies will be considered. While these philosophies approach the subject from different angles, they are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Between them, they manage to provide insight into many of the challenges that affect the practice of learning in organizations. Although a properly integrated theory of learning is still some distance off, the collective wisdom captured in the work of a variety of theorists and practitioners will enable us to better understand what is a complex and multifaceted domain.

APPROACHES TO ADULT LEARNING

To begin with, Merriam, Caffarella and Baumgartner (2007) outline a number of learning frameworks or philosophies within which various approaches to the subject have been accommodated. They include behaviourism, cognitivism, humanism, social cognitivism and constructivism. These have important implications for learning at individual and group level, and will now be discussed.

Behaviourism and Learning

Early and important contributions to our understanding of the learning process come from the work of people like Thorndike, Watson and Skinner. Behaviourism begins with the assumption that the focus of interest for studying learning should be observable, measurable behaviour. On that basis, behaviourists assert that learning is said to occur when there is a change in behaviour. A second assumption of behaviourism is that how we behave is determined by our environment, not by ourselves. In essence this suggests that our internal thought processes do not play a role in learning at all. Instead, the probability of us behaving in a certain way is reinforced if we receive a positive reward (or avoid punishment) as a consequence of that behaviour. If, on the other hand, the behaviour continues not to be reinforced, it eventually becomes extinct. Reinforcement is a central element of behaviourism.

Although the influence of behaviourist ideas in the world of learning has lost ground to later (particularly cognitive) approaches, Petri and Mishkin (1994), for example, suggest that insights from behaviourism may be useful in explaining the formation of habits (learned behaviour that is not necessarily available to cognition), which work separately from memories (which are available to cognition) to facilitate learning. Habits, they explain, are simply a relationship between a stimulus and a response. They are formed over time as particular responses to given stimuli are reinforced. To take an example, an individual who consistently contributes ideas at meetings may have their efforts recognized in a positive way, which will encourage them to continue doing so. On the other hand, if they always end up being the person who has to implement those ideas, adding to their already busy workload, it would not be surprising if they saw fit to reduce the number of ideas they come up with in the future. In effect, they learn the habit of contributing (or not contributing) ideas, without having to spend too long thinking about it.

The development of new habits, that is, enduring behaviour patterns, is consistently seen as the most desirable outcome within the domains of training and of performance in today’s organizations. In the case of training, outcomes are typically expressed in terms of application-oriented objectives, which include standards to which and conditions under which tasks should be performed. Whether the training is about conducting more effective meetings, developing negotiating skills or managing time better, it is usually expected that the trainee will be able to do something differently as a result. Of course that is not to say that stating objectives in this way is inappropriate, but as later approaches have demonstrated, different types of objectives may be appropriate for different learning situations. In a related way and in the context of performance, organizations with any degree of interest in monitoring and measuring performance have some form of system for doing so. Once again, the basis of performance appraisal in such systems is usually a set of prescribed behavioural objectives, stating what must be achieved, conditions under which it must be achieved, behaviour to be demonstrated, and so on. Contingent rewards, for successfully completing the training course, or for achieving stated performance objectives, then reinforce the behaviour.

Cognitivism and Learning

The cognitivist approach, developed through important contributions from Piaget, Ausubel and Gagne amongst others, is built on quite different assumptions. Its focus is on the mental processes involved in learning – how we think, perceive, remember and learn – rather than demonstrable changes in behaviour. At the heart of these processes is the memory system, which takes in information, organizes it in relation to what is already there, and uses the resulting memory structures for interpreting information (known as ‘schemata’, or ‘schemas’) to facilitate further learning and problem solving. For example, an individual who already understands Spanish will find it easier to learn Italian or French than one who understands neither, given the similarities between the languages. Information on the new language can be compared with what is already stored in memory regarding the previously learned language (such as similar words or grammatical rules), become associated with the previous schema and be more easily available for recall when required.

Given that individuals are likely to process and interpret information in unique ways, the implications for learning are important. For instance, individual learning styles (Honey and Mumford 1992), essentially a function of how individuals process information, will suit some types of learning more than others. The activist will want to try something first before reflecting on it, while the reflector will be likely to give consideration to a new task before trying it out. The theorist will want to know how something new fits in to what they already know, while the pragmatist will want to ensure the new learning has a practical value. Indeed cognitivism is at the heart of a number of organizational learning approaches, which will be discussed in greater detail in later chapters.

Another reason cognitivism has an important contribution to make is that as individuals gain more experience and move up the organizational ladder inevitably their jobs become more complex, and as a result less easy to define in strict behavioural terms. Desired outcomes (in terms of training or performance) may still be specified in these terms, but different and less tangible learning outcomes may also be valid. Also, the specific way in which these outcomes should be achieved is more likely to be left up to the individual as they progress. At higher levels, people are usually acquiring more declarative (contextual) knowledge, and integrating it with what they already know, building up their expertise in particular areas and making it easier to use that knowledge to solve future problems. As an example, the principles of this approach underlie the rotation of managers through different functions as part of their preparation for general management roles, where reflection on their experience (and thus their learning) may be facilitated through coaching or mentoring.

Humanism and Learning

Humanist learning theory, with which names such as Maslow and Rogers are associated, places emphasis on the nature of human growth and development, and in doing so deals with both cognitive and affective (feeling) aspects of learning. Humanists argue that learning is about the freedom and responsibility to become what one is capable of becoming, and that the process of learning is more important than the content. Another important element of the humanist approach is that our perceptions are based on our experience. Thus the choices we make in terms of learning are guided both by our internal thought processes and by factors in the environment we experience.

As with the other approaches already discussed, the humanist approach to learning has implications for the way in which individuals choose to use their work or career to develop skills, knowledge or even new ways of looking at life. In its inclusion of the affective (feeling) aspect, it positions learning primarily as a self-development activity – individuals will learn what they’re interested in learning, and what makes sense for them. In organizational settings, an understanding of this approach will provide greater insights into an individual’s motivation to learn, given that motivation to continue self-development throughout one’s career can be a complex matter. It should also enable the development of learning interventions that build on that motivation and thus facilitate learning effectiveness.

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BOX 1.1 INTEGRATING THREE PHILOSOPHIES IN A COACHING INTERVENTION

Dick is the operations manager for a chain of pharmacies begun by his grandmother some 50 years ago, and now in its third generation of family ownership. It is widely assumed that Dick will take over the running of the business when his uncle Brian retires at the end of the year. Partly in preparation for his new role, but also out of general interest, he has undertaken a part-time management development programme. On the programme, interaction with course tutors and other participants is giving him plenty of time to reflect. In particular, his profiles from personality and other feedback instruments are making him think about his strengths, weaknesses and career interests. One of the consequences from this process is that he’s questioning his motivations in a way that he hasn’t up to now. If Dick thinks of the sort of work that has really satisfied him in the past, he fondly remembers working on projects to solve problems, such as the research he did when completing his Master’s degree, or a small study he undertook amongst his customers to examine the feedback regarding a loyalty programme they introduced. On the other hand, most of the stresses he has experienced have come from constantly working to tight deadlines, constructing and monitoring budgets and the sales and marketing activity that goes with the job he’s currently performing. At the moment, he’s wondering whether he might like to change direction and get involved on the research side of the industry, although that’s not easy for someone in the third generation of a family business.

As part of the management development programme he’s undertaking he has been allocated a coach, who is available to him over the course of the programme. From a cognitive perspective, the coach is facilitating the sort of reflection that enables Dick to think through his strengths, preferences and motivations. He questions his client’s perceptions, beliefs and values to help him develop insights into what he really wants from life, and has created an environment where he can voice his thoughts freely. From a humanist perspective this is important, as Dick feels that indicating a desire to leave the family business would be seen as disloyal and would come as a blow to other family members, particularly his father, who is the Chairman.

However, both coach and client agree that the matter should at least be raised, as while Dick wants to do what he sees as ‘the right thing by his family’, he also feels he has a right to ‘become what he is capable of becoming’. Because there is a danger that too much reflection without action is not conducive to progress, he puts together with his coach a course of action to set things in motion. He agrees to meet with the chairman and with Brian, and role plays with his coach what these meetings might look like. He makes an appointment with a research scientist he knows, to outline his thoughts on a change in career direction and to seek feedback. And at the same time he sets specific short-term performance goals for his ‘day job’ to ensure that it continues to be performed effectively while he contemplates his future.

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Social Cognitivism and Learning

Social cognitivist theory draws together aspects of both the behaviourist and cognitivist learning approaches already discussed and adds another – the social dimension. The most important tenets of this approach are that learning occurs most frequently in a social environment, and that people can learn from observing others. Its behaviourist origins promoted the idea that although observation was an important element in learning, learning couldn’t really take place unless learners imitated what they observed and the (correct) behaviour was reinforced. Later work by Rotter and primarily Bandura concentrated more on the cognitive processes that are involved, and separating the acts of observation and imitation. In particular, Bandura (1986) argues that individuals can learn by observing the behaviour of others and by reflecting on (a key element of the cognitive approach) and visualizing the consequences for themselves.

The most significant contribution of the social cognitive approach to learning in organizations is that it takes account of the environment in which learning is taking place, where behaviour is a function of the interaction between the person and the environment. For example, a trainee accountant joining an auditing firm will have a lot to learn in their first year. There is of course the obvious declarative and procedural knowledge that goes with being an accountant – costs, revenues, taxes and the like. There is also their induction and socialization into the organization itself – how it’s structured, who’s who, what gets noticed, what not to do and so on. While the acquisition of declarative knowledge will involve a certain amount of formal learning, they are also likely to learn a lot from observing and listening to others they encounter, such as managers, mentors and clients. In terms of procedural knowledge, the chances are even greater that the bulk of what they pick up will be from others, including their presumptions, perceptions and prejudices, for better or for worse.

Constructivism and Learning

Firmly rooted in the notion of experience as a basis for learning, the contructivist approach suggests that adult learning is about learners making sense of their experience. For some, without doubt this can be achieved individually. In such cases learning depends on building on current knowledge structures and developing new ones, as discussed in cognitivism earlier. However, where constructivism really becomes a social process is when practical learning activities are supported by group discussions. Thus the social constructivist view is that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage around shared problems and tasks.

Much of the learning we see in organizations is in fact constructivist in nature. The constructivist framework encompasses self-direction, transformational learning, experiential learning and andragogy, as well as situated learning, reflective practice, action learning and communities of practice. These approaches have particular relevance for knowledge organizations, for as will be seen in the coming chapters, both the experiential and social dimensions of learning are critical to the creation, retention and transfer of knowledge, the basic building blocks of organizational learning.

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BOX 1.2 SOCIAL COGNITIVISM AND CONSTRUCTIVISM IN ACTION

The management team at a small wholesale distributors are currently trying to respond to significant competitive challenges to their business. Newer low-cost entrants to the market are making life difficult for this long-established operation to maintain its margins. The managing director has a number of ideas as to how they might respond in the medium to long term, but is encountering resistance from some of her colleagues. As quickly as ideas are produced, arguments (some of them valid) against that course of action are put forward, defensiveness ensues, and meetings break up without clear decisions.

In the heat of the moment, what the managers are probably failing to grasp is that relevant solutions are most likely within their collective experience. Between them they have accumulated some 90 years of business experience, in work environments both similar to and different from where they are now. It is more likely that the ‘learning’ process they’re employing is getting in the way of solutions. On the basis of some expert advice, they decide to practise a new approach to their meetings using some basic principles. First, they take one issue at a time. Second, they use a questioning process to draw out each other’s experience of similar situations, identifying successes and failures in a non-defensive way (ground rules are set beforehand) and reflecting on the contributing factors. Third, they separate diagnosis from solution, resisting the temptation to provide quick answers before the facts of the issue are well aired. As a result, defensiveness is reduced, more real-world experience is brought to bear on the issue, and team learning is thus enhanced.

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SUMMARY

The learning philosophies described above provide a backdrop for a range of schools of thought that have grown around a number of aspects of adult learning, and which have relevance for learning in organizations. As stated earlier, these philosophies are not mutually exclusive. Instead, the insights each provides blend together to help make sense of what can be a complex and confusing field of activity. These insights will be discussed under a number of headings in the next two chapters. First, we will briefly examine the nature of andragogy, a term usually associated with adult learning. Next we will discuss self-directed learning, itself a major component of the andragogical approach. As self-directed learning in organizations inevitably involves experience and varying degrees of reflection (including critical reflection) on that experience, these issues will also be dealt with. Further, the notions of learning as ‘transformational’ and ‘emancipatory’ (and their implication...