Among the various schools of Chinese philosophy, Confucianism and Taoism dominated ancient China, on account of their focus on issues relating to the human limitations that existed in society. Buddhism “crossed the border” from India and was introduced into China in the Han and Tang dynasties, Confucianism and Taoism managed to absorb its essence through the development of neo-Confucianism by Cheng and Zhu, and the school of Universal Mind of Lu and Wang in the Song and Ming dynasties respectively. Thus, it can be said that the merging of the disciplines of philosophy and religion during this period, in a unique way, was a major force in shaping the predilections of Chinese society right up to the close of the Qing dynasty in 1912. In more modern times the traditional philosophies have been further developed, have intermixed with influences of Western thought, and pragmatic philosophies have emerged, such as the Sinicized version of Marxism.
1.1 Schools of Chinese Philosophy
In different periods of Chinese history, from the pre-Qin, Han, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties (2100 BC to AD 1368), to modern times, Chinese philosophy per se has assumed different characteristics. The pre-Qin period presented a kaleidoscope of philosophic schools of thought from Confucianism, to Taoism, Legalism, Mohism, the School of Names, and so on. The two prominent schools were the much talked about philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism, which arose during the Han (202 BC–AD 220) and Tang (AD 618–907) dynasties, with Dong Zhongshu’s idea of humans and nature as one, Wang Chong’s concept of atheism, and Wang Bi’s metaphysics coming to the fore.
In the later Song (AD 960–1279) and Ming (AD 1368–1644) dynasties Cheng and Zhu’s revisionist neo-Confucianism and Lu and Yang’s Theory of Universal Mind became more fashionable. In more recent times, not only has there been a revisiting of traditional Chinese philosophies, such as positivism and what is termed Modern neo-Confucianism, but also—due to Western influences in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries—the pragmatic evolution of a Chinese version of Marxism.
1.1.1 Schools of Philosophy in the Pre-Qin Period
This era in China’s long history of civilization represented a dynamic period of social change, as the traditional slavery system gave way to a new era in terms of governance, with strict feudalism, which in turn force-fed the then new philosophies that arose, as highlighted above. We review here the two most prominent of these social forces, Taoism and Confucianism, whose leading thinkers were Laozi (580–500 BC) and Zhuangzi (369–286 BC), and then Confucius (551–479 BC) and Mencius (372–289 BC), respectively.
1.1.1.1 Taoism
This school of thought preached that the universe is an organic system with endless vitality, and that the ultimate source of the universe is the Tao, which impregnates and transcends everything. Taoism is best elaborated by its two most famous masters: Laozi and Zhuangzi.
Laozi (580–500 BC): otherwise referred to as Li Er, was a native of Ku County in the kingdom of Chu (now Luyi County, Henan Province). Laozi served as the curator of the National Library in the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC). Although born 30 years earlier than Confucius, it is believed he once instructed Confucius on ethics. There are, in fact, three Lao Zi recorded in Chinese history:
The first Lao Tzu was a man named Li Erh or Li Tan, who came from the village of Ch’üjen in the southern Chinese state of Ch’u. Li Erh served as historian in charge of the official records in the Chinese imperial capital of Loyang . He was a peer of the famous Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), and he is reported to have given an interview to Confucius when he came to Loyang seeking information on the Chou ritual.Another man identified as the founder of Taoism was Lao Lai Tzu, who also came from Ch’u. He is said to be a person of the same age as Confucius and is credited with a fifteen-chapter book explaining the teachings of the Taoist school. Nothing more is known about the second Lao Tzu. 1
Clearly, this instruction had a profound impact on Confucius, since the later publication The Book Laozi, alias Tao Te Ching, which consists of Tao Ching and Te Ching, was compiled by his disciples and has been the key source of reference in studying the thoughts of Laozi the philosopher; with Tao meaning the Way, that is, the ultimate origin of everything, Laozi developed his philosophy to focus on answering the question, what is nature, and to explain why there is such a wide variation of universal beings. In his explanation Laozi holds that Tao is the origin and master of the universe, that Wuwei (inaction) is an important feature of this reality, and as a consequence Tao functions by way of inaction. He further believed that “things” are composed of contradictory elements.
Zhuangzi (c. 369–286 BC): otherwise referred to as Zhuang Zhou, was a contemporary of Mencius, a native of the kingdom of Song. A disciple of Laozi, he became one of the key thinkers of the philosophy of Taoism in pre-Qin times. His views are best represented in The Book of Zhuangzi, whose seven middle chapters are believed to have been written by Zhuangzi himself, and the other chapters by his disciples.
Zhuangzi expresses his philosophical ideas mainly through fables. On the subject of the law of Nature, which he inherited from the writings of Laozi, he likewise holds that Tao is the origin of being. He teaches that Tao is Wu (a non-being), a noumenon, omnipresent and transcending time. He emphasizes that Tao represents the supreme noumenon that transcends everything. Further, that it operates from non-being to being and as such is responsible for the production of all things. The operational sequence of Tao is described as: Tao—character—life—shape—Nature. Thus, when all things finally vanish, such as life, it returns to Tao. In his second chapter, “On Leveling All Things,” Zhuangzi explains his theory of relativism and agnosticism; that there is a lack of criteria to judge right from wrong, which marks him as a typical philosopher of relativism and agnosticism. In the first chapter he tells the fable of a giant bird and a little bird. While the giant bird is able to fly to a height of 90,000 miles, and the little bird may find it difficult to fly from one tree to another, he asserts they may be equally happy because both can fly according to their ability. He likewise asserts that the perfect man has no self, the spiritual man has no achievement, and a true sage has no name. In such circumstances Zhuangzi describes an ideal man as being happy, perfect, and spiritually free.2
1.1.1.2 Confucianism
Confucianism became one of the most influential schools of the pre-Qin philosophies with both Confucius and Mencius rated as its most famous proponents. The key focus of Confucius’ teachings was the intrinsic worth of humanity and he advocates a love of other humans, while Mencius emphasizes love of the people by the government. We shall now examine the life and times of both men.
Confucius (551–479 BC): born in Zou (now Qufu, Shangdong Province) of the kingdom of Lu. His family name was Kong, his given name was Qiu, and his pen-name was Zhongni. Having traveled extensively in the nearby kingdoms of Song, Wei, Chen, Cai, and Qi, among others, and having failed to obtain a desirable government position,3 he returned to the kingdom of Lu in his old age to concentrate on teaching and editing the classics. It is said that Confucius taught 3000 students, among whom 72 became famous thinkers and scholars. His words were compiled by some of his disciples into The Analects, which became the key text for studying Confucian ideas. Tradition has it that Confucius wrote The Spring and Autumn Annals (the chronicles of the kingdom of Lu), compiled the Book of Poetry and the Book of History, annotated the Book of Changes, and revised the books of Rituals and Music.
The core of Confucian thinking is Ren, which in English means humanity. To advocate his political ideal of resuming Zhou li (the Rites of Zhou), Confucius proposed a humanity-based theory: that one subdues oneself and must obey propriety norms. Confucius’ Ren,4 was first and foremost focused on issues in daily life related to the social political system of those times. He saw humanity and rites, or social rituals, as part of a composite whole; with the former more important than the latter. His view was that the basic requirements of Ren are to restrain oneself so as to conform to the Rites of Zhou, which in turn primarily relates to social order. He considered Ren to be constant in spite of changes in social conditions. He thus went out of his way to revive the old order through morality engineering, in other words, filial piety and fraternal submission are to be seen as the roots of humanity, or Ren, which needs to be revered as the universal principle of politics. Such a philosophy was well supported by China’s well-developed farming culture and relatively stable social environment of that period. It was certainly a fertile environment in which to foster a patriarchal clan system that fitted well with the cultural system of the Zhou dynasty. Truly believing in this system, Confucius characterized it with such key words as filial piety and fraternal submission.
Benevolence in such a context means love for all people and Confucianism as a philosophy consists of three principal precepts: first, a tiered set of rights and duties dependent on where you stand within the societal clan system; second, the ability to judge others by what is in ourselves; and third, rudiments of humanism. In this respect Confucianism regards humans as the most important species among all beings.
Mencius (372–289 BC): born in the kingdom of Zou and recognized as the representative of Confucianism during the mid-Warring States era. As a disciple of Zi Si, Confucius’ grandson, he is classified by Xunzi as belonging to the Si-Meng School. Similar to Confucius, Mencius also traveled with his disciples around such kingdoms as Qi, Wei, Song, Teng, Chu, promoting his theory of benevolent government. He worked as a political consultant in the kingdom of Qi for three years. In his later years he returned to his home kingdom of Zou, where he taught his disciples the Books of Poetry and History, expounded Confucian ideas, and wrote seven chapters of his major work, Mencius. While following Confucius’ main themes in respect to humanity, Mencius expanded such precepts further by focusing on issues relating to benevolent government. As to the concept of the goodness of human nature, he believed that: “All men have a common mind which cannot bear to see the suffering of others”.
As to the concept of benevolent government, he argued that: “the people are the most important entity of any nation, followed by the spirits of the land and the grains from the land, and the sovereign being the least important.” This idea defined in his mind the best possible causal relationship that could exist between a government and its people. For this reason, on the basis of his humanistic thinking, Mencius proposed a theory of benevolent government which inculcated sympathy for others, as evidenced in his pragmatic words:
When one by force subdues men, they do not submit to him at heart. They submit because they are ove...