Marijuana

A Short History

John Hudak

• Editore: Brookings Institution Press
• ISBN:
  9780815729075
• Argomento: Medicina
• Categoria: Medicina alternativa e complementare

From Reefer Madness to legal purchase at the corner store. With long-time legal and social barriers to marijuana falling across much of the United States, the time has come for an accessible and informative look at attitudes toward the dried byproduct of Cannabis sativa. Marijuana: A Short History profiles the politics and policies concerning the five-leaf plant in the United States and around the world.Millions of Americans have used marijuana at some point in their lives, yet it remains a substance shrouded by myth, misinformation, and mystery. This book offers an up-to-date, cutting-edge look at how a plant with a tumultuous history has emerged from the shadows of counterculture and illegality. Today, marijuana has become a remarkable social, economic, and even political force, with a surprising range of advocates and opponents. Public policy toward marijuana, especially in the United States, is changing rapidly. Marijuana: A Short History provides a brief yet compelling narrative that discusses the social and cultural history of marijuana but also tells us how a once-vilified plant has been transformed into a serious, even mainstream, public policy issue. Focusing on politics, the media, government, and education, the book describes why public policy has changed, and what that change might mean for marijuana’s future place in society.

PART I A WEED BY ANY OTHER NAME

ONE CANNABIS AS PLANT AND PRODUCT

MARIJUANA IS SUBJECT to numerous misconceptions and confusion. There is disagreement on some basic issues, such as how the cannabis plant grows, how it interacts with the body, where it comes from, and how long it has been in use. Before jumping into a discussion of marijuana policy, it is important to dispel these misconceptions regarding the plant and its products.

Some popular misconceptions include that marijuana is easy to grow, that it can grow under almost any conditions, and that it’s pretty much the same everywhere. You grow it, pluck its flowers, dry them, wrap them in rolling paper, and smoke it, and there you have it, your weed, or pot, or Mary Jane. In reality the cannabis plant is biologically complex, and the production of marijuana is not as simple as many people believe.

In addition, marijuana has changed over time with innovations in growing, harvesting, and generating products. Marijuana is no longer something you pack into a bowl, roll in a joint, smoke in a bong, or lace into some brownies. It is now a diverse consumer product available in many forms.

THE CANNABIS PLANT

Members of the Cannabis genus are leafy, flowering plants that are native to Central Asia but have been transported and grown throughout the world. The plant has been around for millions of years in some form and has been used by humans for at least 5,000 years.¹ It tends to be robust and grows effectively in both natural and controlled agricultural settings, and has been described as “a rapidly growing dioecious (male and female reproductive organs on different plants), wind pollinated, annual herb that in some plant selections can reach heights of 20 feet.”² Historically botanists have disagreed as to the number of species in the genus Cannabis, but there is now general agreement that the three principal Cannabis species are C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. Each has its own distinct look, chemical characteristics, and uses.

Cannabis plants grow quickly and can be harvested on accelerated timelines, particularly in controlled agricultural settings. Depending on the species and strain, cannabis has five, seven, or sometimes nine leaves that are dark green and sometimes purple-hued. The plant produces a flower at the tip of the stem and the base of the leaves. The flowers—or bud—have the most powerful concentration of the chemicals that produce an effect on the brain; they are harvested to produce the drug marijuana, particularly when it is to be taken in the most traditional way: smoked. However, other parts of the plant also contain some of the same chemical components, called cannabinoids, that can be psychoactive or nonpsychoactive. So all of the plant’s parts are harvested in commercial production in order to extract cannabinoids.

The drug marijuana is not the only product produced from cannabis. Hemp fibers are produced from specific cannabis plants that are low in cannabis’s main psychoactive chemical, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Hemp stalks can produce strong, fibrous material used for clothing, lines and sails for ships, and other purposes. Its seeds are used as a protein-rich food, and from those seeds oils are extracted that can be used for cooking or other uses. Hemp can also be purposed for use as a biofuel. During certain periods of American history, hemp growth was encouraged or even required because of its versatility and usefulness, particularly in wartime.

Different cannabis varieties grow better under different conditions. Some prefer warmer climates whereas others can survive in colder conditions farther north. One of the most critical aspects of growing cannabis is the light cycle. Different varieties have different requirements for light and dark in order to maximize and facilitate growth:

If vegetative growth conditions are favorable, the stem will increase in height by two inches per day when exposed to the long daylight of summer. While some selections of Cannabis are day-neutral (flower under any day length), most are classified as short-day plants (they need a long dark period, usually fourteen hours or more) and shift from vegetative to generative (reproductive) growth upon exposure to short daylight periods.³

This sensitivity to light and dark signals two important facts about cultivating cannabis. First, it is not as easy to cultivate cannabis as the moniker “weed” would suggest. Despite cannabis’s robustness, it can also be sensitive to growing conditions. Second, because certain varieties of cannabis can require extended periods of darkness to maximize the growth and generative phases, the plant lends itself to indoor-grow environments in which periods of light and dark can be strictly controlled.

Water is another area where cannabis has specific requirements. The amount of water provided and the water’s acidity levels and nutrient balances are critical. Although cannabis can grow under a variety of conditions, if a grower wishes to maximize a plant’s productivity and ensure that its chemical composition is consistent and true to its strain (an important aspect of cannabis grown commercially for the production of marijuana), success requires research, care, frequent attention, and horticultural and agricultural know-how.

CANNABIS SPECIES

The two most common species of cannabis are sativa and indica, typically used in the production of marijuana. Strains of these two species are rich in THC and are used for both medicinal and recreational marijuana. A third, lesser-known, species, ruderalis, tends to have much lower levels of THC. Although cannabis can be grown as a “pure” species—sativa-only or indica-only—an entire cottage industry has emerged around marijuana genetics. This involves the cross-pollination or cross-breeding of different strains and even different species of cannabis to produce new hybrid strains. Much of the genetic diversification is driven by the desire to satisfy consumer tastes, as different combinations offer the user different experiences.

For instance, it is commonly said that “sativa gets you high; indica gets you stoned.” This reflects the user experience whereby sativa strains produce a euphoric feeling whereas indica strains are more mellow and relaxing. The combinations of different species, different strains, or both create many types of chemical combinations and lead to a wide array of experiences, feelings, and responses. Strains have been developed to increase a user’s energy, stimulate the appetite, relax the body, give someone the giggles, suppress the appetite, or help the user focus.

The development of new strains and thus new experiences sometimes happens by accident, but it also emerges from intensive efforts around plant genetics. Research in cannabis genetics occurs in laboratory settings—the scientific pursuit of the perfect high—and also in less formal settings. Individuals who pride themselves as experts or pioneers in this endeavor—working around the world, but particularly in Canada, California, Colorado, and the Netherlands—are producing some of the most sought-after strains.

The three species also differ physically. Indica plants tend to be shorter, stockier plants, whereas sativa plants can grow to significant heights. The stems of sativas are a bit more firm, so hemp is derived from these plants. Ruderalis plants tend to be the smallest of the cannabis group in height and girth. This species also tends to be less potent because of years of natural cross-breeding in its native Central Russia.⁴ It functions more like a wild cannabis, whereas indica, sativa, and their hybrids are usually produced under very controlled environments.

The diverse characteristics of cannabis plants and their specific needs as an agricultural product suggest how much time and thought must be committed to ensure cultivation expertise. I have provided only a glimpse of the technical requirements of growing marijuana. In “Cannabis Grow Revolution,” Danny Danko details the numerous considerations that a cannabis cultivator faces.⁵ He explores hydroponic growing methods, soil requirements, fertilization, pest control, and the choice over indoor and outdoor cultivation. Danko details why cultivating cannabis properly to produce high-quality marijuana is an art.

CANNABINOIDS

Few people are familiar with the word “cannabinoid,” but every person who has used marijuana has experienced the effects of cannabinoids. Cannabinoids are chemical compounds found in the cannabis plant. These chemicals interact with the human body in ways that cause specific sets of reactions. Whatever one feels when using marijuana—excited, mellow, funny, confident, paranoid, hungry, pain-free—one feels this way because cannabinoids are having an effect on the brain.

Cannabis plants contain dozens of these chemicals, but just one or two are commonly known: tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). THC and CBD are prominent in commercialized marijuana: dispensaries in marijuana-legal states often list the percentages of each in a product. THC is the psychoactive component that most users want and that contributes to making the user feel high. CBD, on the other hand, is often associated with medical marijuana, especially treatment for conditions such as epilepsy. CBD has been found to have anti-convulsive and anti-spastic properties that can relax muscles and regulate the brain in ways that can prevent minor and major seizure events. CBD acts in a variety of ways, also possessing anti-inflammatory and other properties. The precise combination of THC, CBD, and the more than sixty other identified cannabinoids in marijuana work together to create the type of effect one gets from using marijuana.

The way cannabinoids interact with the human body is quite interesting and is actually a modern medical discovery. In 1988 a pharmacology researcher named William Devane and his colleagues discovered something interesting: the human body is built to smoke pot. Well, maybe not exactly. But it is built to be receptive to the effects of pot. There are receptors in the brain and elsewhere that are sensitive to cannabinoids and produce, or hinder, chemical responses in reaction to the presence of cannabinoids. This system was dubbed the endocannabinoid system. What’s more, subsequent researchers identified “endogenous cannabinoids,” molecules the human body produces naturally that interact with endocannabinoid receptors; when external cannabinoids such as THC or CBD from the cannabis plant are present, they work with the endogenous molecules and the body’s own receptors to produce a variety of effects within the human body.⁶

It is not fully known how the human body reacts to or benefits from these chemicals. Research shows that the endocannabinoid system can produce neuroprotective responses that can assist in dealing with seizures or brain injuries. It can assist in blunting pain receptors. The chemicals have an impact on the biological processes that cause anxiety. Additional and ongoing research, needed now more than ever, will help the scientific community better understand cannabinoids and the responses of the endocannabinoid system. Such research will become more likely as more and more responsible, innovative entrepreneurs are allowed to operate within a strict regulatory environment.

MARIJUANA STRENGTH

The “strength” of marijuana is measured by how rapidly the body takes up the chemicals and the user feels their effects. The “strength” of marijuana is an interesting concept. Anyone who has used marijuana multiple times has likely encountered “strong stuff.” Typically, that refers to marijuana that gets you high faster or has a stronger effect. That is typically measured by the level of THC, the main psychoactive chemical compound in marijuana. Higher levels of THC can cause more intense effects or speed up the desired effect.

Marijuana, particularly smoked marijuana, has a self-regulating effect because the onset of the psychoactive experience is so rapid that the smoker is quickly satisfied and is not motivated to continue to smoke. This differs from the common experience with alcohol, where large quantities can be consumed before the full effects are felt, at which point one may have drunk too much.

The rise of marijuana edibles, however, particularly in marijuana-legal states, has posed challenges for both self-regulation and the consistent experiences of users. Marijuana edibles come in many countless forms including cookies, brownies, candies, granola, salad dressing, and even pasta sauce. Edibles on the commercial market often come with significant amounts of THC because one unit—a single candy bar or cookie—may contain multiple servings. In Colorado, for example, a standard edible serving has 10mg of THC. Some products for purchase contain five or ten servings, amounting to 50mg or 100mg of THC.

The onset of edible marijuana’s psychoactive effects is dramatically slower than that of smoked marijuana—sometimes thirty minutes to an hour or more. Because of this delay, users—especially a naïve user—can overconsume, believing the edible is weak. This can cause unpleasant effects and a very intense high when all the THC is absorbed. This has come to be called the “Maureen Dowd effect,” after the New York Times columnist who famously and irresponsibly overconsumed marijuana edibles in Colorado, had a bad reaction, and wrote about it in her column, blaming the products rather than the consumer.⁷ In fact, in this case, the product is not “stronger.” Instead, the product is overconsumed.

Some argue that marijuana has gotten much stronger over time, but this claim is controversial. A researcher at the University of Mississippi, Dr. Mahmoud ElSohly, is one of the nation’s leading experts on the cannabis plant and the effects of marijuana—he runs the only marijuana grow operation approved by the federal government. Part of his job is also to test the strength of marijuana seized by federal law enforcement agents. He notes that since 1970, the THC content of seized marijuana has increased from an average of around 3 percent to around 7 to 8 percent in the late 2000s.⁸ Recent evidence suggests this figure now averages about 13 percent THC.⁹

ElSohly’s findings do not tell the whole story about changes in the strength of marijuana, however. His research tells us only about the s...