Lithium Batteries and other Electrochemical Storage Systems

Christian Glaize, Sylvie Genies

• Publisher: Wiley-ISTE
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9781848214965
• eBook ISBN: 9781118761175
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Tecnología e ingeniería
• Subtopic: Recursos energéticos

Lithium batteries were introduced relatively recently in comparison to lead- or nickel-based batteries, which have been around for over 100 years. Nevertheless, in the space of 20 years, they have acquired a considerable market share – particularly for the supply of mobile devices. We are still a long way from exhausting the possibilities that they offer. Numerous projects will undoubtedly further improve their performances in the years to come. For large-scale storage systems, other types of batteries are also worthy of consideration: hot batteries and redox flow systems, for example.
This book begins by showing the diversity of applications for secondary batteries and the main characteristics required of them in terms of storage. After a chapter presenting the definitions and measuring methods used in the world of electrochemical storage, and another that gives examples of the applications of batteries, the remainder of this book is given over to describing the batteries developed recently (end of the 20th Century) which are now being commercialized, as well as those with a bright future. The authors also touch upon the increasingly rapid evolution of the technologies, particularly regarding lithium batteries, for which the avenues of research are extremely varied.

Contents

Part 1. Storage Requirements Characteristics of Secondary Batteries Examples of Use
1. Breakdown of Storage Requirements.
2. Definitions and Measuring Methods.
3. Practical Examples Using Electrochemical Storage.
Part 2. Lithium Batteries
4. Introduction to Lithium Batteries.
5. The Basic Elements in Lithium-ion Batteries: Electrodes, Electrolytes and Collectors.
6. Usual Lithium-ion Batteries.
7. Present and Future Developments Regarding Lithium-ion Batteries.
8. Lithium-Metal Polymer Batteries.
9. Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.
10. Lithium-Air Batteries.
11. Lithium Resources.
Part 3. Other Types of Batteries
12. Other Types of Batteries.

About the Authors

Christian Glaize is Professor at the University of Montpellier, France. He is also Researcher in the Materials and Energy Group (GEM) of the Institute for Electronics (IES), France.
Sylvie Geniès is a project manager at the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives) in Grenoble, France.

PART 1

Storage Requirements Characteristics of Secondary Batteries Examples of Use

Chapter 1

Breakdown of Storage Requirements

1.1. Introduction

Electrochemical electricity storage has been in use for as long as electricity has been industrially used. The earliest secondary battery was introduced by Gaston Planté in 1859, i.e. between the first laboratory primary battery created by Alessandro Volta in 1800 and the industrial dynamo from Zénobe Gramme in 1869.

1.2. Domains of application for energy storage

Energy storage systems are used in many fields of application. Each of these domains is characterized by specific operational profiles and, consequently, different types and technologies of secondary batteries. They are described below.

Of the major domains of application, we might cite:

– starter batteries;

– traction batteries and on-board batteries;

– stationary deep cycle batteries (batteries for storage in decentralized microgrids with photovoltaic generation, for grid support, etc.);

– standby power batteries (batteries for uninterruptible power supply, for safeguarding information, etc.);

– and, more recently, batteries for mobile devices: portable computers and mobile telephones – in billions of units produced each year – digital cameras, audio and video players, camcorders, PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants), etc.

1.2.1. Starter batteries

Better known as “SLI” batteries (for “Start, Lighting and Ignition”), these batteries are used to fire up internal combustion engines (in cars and trucks but also tractors, electrogen groups, or even boats or airplanes, etc.) as well as to provide lighting and many other functions. These batteries have an average specific energy¹ and a low cost.

The profile of the current entering² into an SLI battery, and the evolution of the state of charge (SOC, defined in section 2.4.2) are shown qualitatively below (Figure 1.1). Typically, car batteries have a nominal voltage of 12 V. Their capacity is usually between 40 and 80 Ah. Start currents can reach up to several hundred amperes.³ Measured values are given in section 3.1.1.

In a car with a combustion engine, the battery only supplies energy when the engine is not running, or is running at a slowed speed. When the vehicle is moving, it is the alternator which supplies the demands. When the battery is supplying energy, it is usually quickly recharged by the alternator, and is therefore subjected only to a microcycle. Conversely, in certain trucks, the battery may have to supply certain functions such as the raising/lowering of an unloading tailgate, a refrigeration group, a crane, etc. The battery is then subject to deeper discharges (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.1. Car SLI battery: profile of the current flowing into the battery and change in its SOC

Figure 1.2. SLI battery for a truck with auxiliary functions: profile of current entering into the battery and evolution of its SOC

1.2.2. Traction batteries

Traction batteries are used in forklift trucks, handling and lifting machines, wheelchairs, electrically assisted pedal cycles (EAPCs), electric vehicles (EVs) or hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), golf buggies, etc. These applications require power to be supplied to the engine but also need sufficient energy to deliver a range (capacity for autonomous operation) which is compatible with their usage.

1.2.2.1. Vehicle batteries without brake energy recovery

The slow speed of certain electrically-motorized vehicles means that, even if the electric power chain is capable of it, kinetic energy is not recovered during braking. Such is the case with many handling and lifting machines, wheelchairs, EAPCs, etc.⁴

For these vehicles, the profile of current running into the battery and the evolution of the SOC are shown in Figure 1.3. They are used in a simple cycle: a discharge of greater or lesser depth, followed by a complete charge. The periods of discharging and charging are thus clearly distinct.

EAPCs have batteries of 24, 36 or 48 V and a capacity of around ten Ah. The batteries used for wheelchairs are generally 12 or 24 V, with capacities of up to a few tens of Ah (usually 20–40 Ah). For handling vehicles such as forklift trucks, several 6 or 12 V batteries are connected in series, with unitary capacities of several hundred Ah.

For this type of application, the technology needs to be adapted: we favor electrode/electrolyte interfaces which offer the largest possible exchange surfaces so as to be able to supply and receive a significant peak power. However, for each application, there is a compromise to be found between the peak power and the stored energy (an explanation of the difference between “energy” batteries and “power” batteries is given in section 5.2.2).

Figure 1.3. Traction battery: profile of current entering into the battery and evolution of its SOC

1.2.2.2. Vehicle batteries with brake energy recovery

Electric or hybrid cars use batteries whose sizing and design are appropriate to supply the power and/or energy needs to respond to the different usage profiles. In contrast to the applications discussed above, energy is recovered by the battery on braking. Current peaks appear during the phases of braking. The same is true of golf buggies, electric karts, etc. To set these apart from the previous uses, we sometimes find the term “on-board batteries”.

Three usage profiles can be defined for operation in a hybrid vehicle, a hybrid plug-in vehicle (i.e. a rechargeable hybrid) or a pure electric vehicle.

1.2.2.2.1. Hybrid vehicle batteries

Generally speaking, the batteries fitted to a hybrid vehicle tend to be sized for power, because they need to be capable of providing peaks of power during acceleration and being recharged with high intensities during braking. They play the role of an energy buffer between the primary energy source – the combustion engine – and the vehicle’s running needs. The excursion of the depth of discharge (DOD, see section 2.4.1) is therefore very limited. In order to prevent too high or too low a state of charge (SOC, see section 2.4.2), which may be damaging for the NiMH batteries used, the charge oscillates by a few % around an average state of charge between 40 and 80% (54-56% for the Toyota Prius 2001 in hybrid operation⁵) (Figure 1.4). In the Toyota Prius and the Honda Insight, even with fully electrical operation, the battery management syst...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Contents
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• PART 1: Storage Requirements Characteristics of Secondary Batteries Examples of Use
• PART 2: Lithium Batteries
• PART 3: Other Types of Batteries
• Conclusion
• Index