Understanding and Conducting Research in the Health Sciences

Christopher J. L. Cunningham, Bart L. Weathington, David J. Pittenger

• Publisher: Wiley
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9781118135402
• eBook ISBN: 9781118594360
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Medicine
• Subtopic: Biostatistics

A comprehensive introduction to behavioral and social science research methods in the health sciences

Understanding and Conducting Research in the Health Sciences is designed to develop and facilitate the ability to conduct research and understand the practical value of designing, conducting, interpreting, and reporting behavioral and social science research findings in the health science and medical fields. The book provides complete coverage of the process behind these research methods, including information-gathering, decision formation, and results presentation.

Examining the application of behavioral and social science research methodologies within the health sciences, the book focuses on implementing and developing relevant research questions, collecting and managing data, and communicating various research perspectives. An essential book for readers looking to possess an understanding of all aspects of conducting research in the health science field, Understanding and Conducting Research in the Health Sciences features:

• Various research designs that are appropriate for use in the health sciences, including single-participant, multi-group, longitudinal, correlational, and experimental designs
• Step-by-step coverage of single-factor and multifactor studies as well as single-subject and nonexperimental methods
• Accessible chapter explanations, real-world examples, and numerous illustrations throughout
• Guidance regarding how to write about research within the formatting styles of the American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association

The book is an excellent educational resource for healthcare and health service practitioners and researchers who are interested in conducting and understanding behavioral and social science research done within the health sciences arena. The book is also a useful resource for students taking courses in the fields of medicine, public health, epidemiology, biostatistics, and the health sciences.

Part One
Overview of the Research Process

Chapter 1
Behavioral and Social Research in the Health Sciences

• INTRODUCTION
• WHY IS UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH METHODS SO IMPORTANT?
• THE ROLE OF BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
• THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• BRIEF HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC REASONING
• BACON'S LEGACY
• OTHER IMPORTANT HISTORICAL FIGURES
• ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
• REQUIREMENTS FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

All the world is a laboratory to the inquiring mind.

—Martin H. Fischer

Introduction

The best potential solutions to health-related challenges are frequently changing, as promising new techniques, therapies, and medications are continually developed and tested. This never-ending process relies on science and also carries with it the requirement that professionals within the health sciences are able to understand basic research and its potential applications within their daily health-related work. Despite the fact that so much of the widely touted and shared health sciences or medical research is focused on relatively impersonal methods of treatment or aspects of the process of treatment (e.g., medication errors or the impact of new technologies), so much of what impacts the quality of life of individual patients, their families, and entire communities is directly linked to behavioral and social factors operating within the person and the environment in which that person functions.

Understanding complex human behaviors and cognitions associated with health is no easy task. Without an empirical, scientific approach to gaining such insight about those who work in the health sciences and those who are served by the health sciences, it is likely that either or both sides of this relationship will be operating with potentially dangerous, incomplete information. Having a solid understanding and appreciation of basic behavioral and social research methods will help you to make higher-quality and better-informed decisions. This text is designed to provide a rich introduction to the basic behavioral and social science research methods that will help you generate new health-related knowledge and translate existing health science knowledge into practice.

Why Is Understanding Research Methods So Important?

There are three core types of information that anyone seeking to understand human behavior must know: (1) how to conduct and interpret high-quality research, (2) how to develop and evaluate measures of human thought and behavior, and (3) how to use basic statistics to make sense of available and relevant data.

Why are the three core topics just highlighted so important? Think about it—researching, analyzing, and reporting are three of the most generalizable and valuable skills learned during higher education that can help you find a job, keep a job, and more generally, make a meaningful contribution to society. You can think big thoughts and theorize all day long, but without these three research-related skills, your great ideas will never translate into credible actions. We do not want your good ideas to be restricted by the boundaries of your mind. This is why we all sincerely hope that you are not dreading learning about research methodology or fearing something nonspecific about the process of research. There is nothing scary here, just a systematic approach to learning, understanding, and questioning that will benefit you, no matter what path you take over the course of your career.

The most efficient, credible, and ultimately useful techniques for studying and understanding human behavior apply the scientific method in some way, shape, or form. Proper test development and utilization help to ensure the best possible data are collected. Appropriate statistical techniques facilitate interpretation of these data. We firmly believe that the only way to become a legitimate consumer and producer of knowledge is to first learn how to work with the tools of the trade: the scientific method, tests and assessments, and statistics.

This book will help you learn how to conduct and understand research within the health sciences that addresses questions with behavioral and social science underpinnings. Such questions could involve interpersonal phenomena or person-environment linkages, among many other possibilities. We will cover how to develop and evaluate tests, surveys, and other measures of behavior. Throughout the chapters of this book we will also remind you of how basic statistics can help as you work to address specific research questions. If you feel you need a refresher in the most basic statistics, a review is included in Appendix A.

The Role of Behavioral and Social Science

• What are some examples of science in your life?
• Have you “researched” anything today?
• What are some big decisions or questions you are currently considering?

H.G. Wells, a nineteenth-century author, predicted that “statistical thinking will one day be as necessary for effective citizenship as the ability to read and write” (as cited by Campbell, 1974). We strongly believe this prediction has come true. Although you may not plan to become a researcher yourself, working in the health sciences (and many other areas of life) will force you to confront issues that can be addressed only with the aid of scientific research. Consider the following example issues:

• What intervention technique is most likely to be effective at reducing alcohol consumption among teenagers in this community?
• What are the best ways to demonstrate empathy when interacting with patients?
• Are cultural competence training programs or interventions effective?
• Are there any side effects associated with this new medication that might negatively affect patients' quality of life?
• How can we improve patient safety and operational efficiency without reducing our level of compassionate care within this hospital?

These are just a few examples of relevant behavioral and social science-related questions that can commonly arise when working in the health sciences. Knowledge of basic behavioral and social science research methods can give you the confidence needed to ask these and other difficult questions and to actually find the important answers.

Take, for example, the classic legal case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993). In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that judges, not jury members, must determine the merits and scientific validity of testimony given by expert witnesses. In response to the court's decision, the Federal Judicial Center (1994) developed the book Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence to help judges and lawyers understand the principles of research methods and statistics. As the authors of the book noted, “no longer can judges … rely on their common sense and experience in evaluating the testimony of many experts. … The challenge the justice system faces is to adapt its process to enable the participants to deal with this kind of evidence fairly and efficiently and to render informed decisions” (p. 1). As H.G. Wells predicted, the knowledge of the scientific method is now a vital part of our government and judicial system and, therefore, our everyday lives.

You are not alone if you fear research in general and perhaps statistics more specifically. Many otherwise very intelligent and confident people seem to freeze like a deer in the headlights when anything statistics-like appears because they do not understand the relevance or importance of these topics to their own lives. We hope that by the time you finish this text, you will understand the relevance of the scientific method, proper measurement, and appropriate statistics and have confidence in a newfound skill set that will serve you for the rest of your life.

The Scientific Method

When designing and conducting behavioral and social science research, perhaps the most important element is to ensure that you adhere to the scientific method. Knowing each of its steps and how they are interrelated will allow you to conduct the highest-quality research possible, in any domain. Perhaps the easiest way to remember the scientific method from start to finish is to learn the mnemonic HOMER (Lakin, Giesler, Morris, & Vosmik, 2007), which stands for

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Table of contents

• Cover
• Table of Contents
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Preface
• Part One: Overview of the Research Process
• Part Two: Nuts and Bolts of Research
• Part Three: Common Research Designs
• Part Four: Special Research Designs
• Appendix A: Reviewing the Statistics behind the Research
• Appendix B: Statistical Tables
• Index
• End User License Agreement