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Communication Skills in Science
About this chapter
In this chapter we will discuss the importance of communication in science and the types of communication skills you will need both during and after your university course. We will look at some basic rules to follow when writing scientific English, and at general issues, such as paragraphing, common spelling mistakes, use of the apostrophe and problems that may arise with the use of spell-checkers. Although this book is aimed principally at bioscience students, much of the advice will be useful for science students generally.
Why are communication skills important for scientists?
When successful graduates move into scientific careers, they will be called upon to practise the communication skills they have learned during their training. In addition, they may be expected to talk about their work with scientists and with non-scientists. For example, scientists specializing in the molecular biology of cancer and who work in a research laboratory may be expected to communicate their work to:
- fellow scientists working in their laboratory;
- scientists who work in different laboratories, but who may wish to collaborate;
- scientists at national and international conferences;
- eminent scientists who sit on grant - awarding authorities;
- students undertaking a placement in their laboratory;
- research students whom they may be supervising;
- journalists who want to find out about (and possibly publicize) their work;
- ethical committees, which consist of scientists and non-scientists, if their work has ethical implications;
- community groups and representatives from business who may wish to donate funds to their research;
- senior managers who may influence the future course of their work.
The types of communication skills required by todayâs scientists include being able to communicate in writing, and to make presentations which involve both oral and visual communication. Examples of written communications include:
- laboratory reports;
- research papers, articles and reviews for scientific journals;
- grant applications;
- briefings for management;
- progress reports;
- product descriptions.
Examples of oral communications include:
- talks to a variety of audiences;
- team or management briefings;
- research papers delivered at conferences.
Examples of visual presentations include:
- scientific posters;
- information leaflets for target audiences.
Presentations using computer software such as PowerPoint require oral and visual communication skills. Above all, it is essential that scientists communicate the results of their work in a way which takes account of the audience, but which is always truthful and unambiguous.
New students studying science at university will quickly find that they are expected to acquire and demonstrate a wide range of communication skills throughout their course. It is no longer possible for students to obtain a university degree based almost entirely on the ability to pass examinations at the end of each year, as was the case in many degree programmes fifty years ago. However, even if successful science graduates choose a career other than one in science, they will find that they require good communication skills in any âgraduateâ career they enter. For this reason, communication skills are regarded as âtransferable skillsâ which can enhance the employability of a student in many careers.
Scientific writing: a little bit of history
Table 1.1 shows some history of scientific writing which goes back to around 1400 BC. You can see that much of the reason behind recording natural phenomena (eclipses, floods etc.) had a very practical purpose, such as being able to predict when these phenomena would occur.
Table 1.1 A brief history of early science
| Date | Who and where? | What and why? |
| 1400 BC | China Egypt | Recorded information about, for example, solar and lunar eclipses and floods in order to predict when they would occur |
| 800 BC | Homer, Hesiod | Indicated knowledge and study of stars and constellations, probably to indicate seasons for planting crops or to provide sailors with aids to navigation |
| 500 BC onward | Greeks | Used mathematics to lay down definitions and first principles of geometry
Study of anatomy and physiology (dissection being practised) Technical terminology and taxonomy being developed |
| 372â287 BC | Theophrastus | Produced treatises on botany; distinguished between mono - and dicotyledonous plants |
| ca.100 AD | Roman Empire | âSophisticatedâ clinical techniques being practised |
After the fall of the Roman Empire science and medicine declined in much of Western Europe but continued to flourish in the Arabic and Chinese worlds. In fact, had Arabic scholars of the period not translated much of the scientific literature of the later Roman times and of the great period of Greek science and philosophy, it is probable that such literature would not have survived. It was only when the Arabic translations of lost texts became available in Western Europe that science and scientific understanding began to be revived, and by the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the development of science began to take off again in the Western world.
Today, we are very familiar with the idea that science is an experimental subject in which findings from experiments allow us to build on the work of previous scientists. Early on, though, science was mostly about observing rather than experimenting. The beginning of the seventeenth century, however, saw the development and widespread acceptance of what is known as the âscientific methodâ. Scientific method (see Figure 1.1) involves:
An example of this might be:
1. You have observed that young pea seedlings grow towards the light but you want to test this scientifically. So, you plant several trays of seeds. One tray you grow in darkness, another in full light, another with a sole source of light which comes from one side only.
2. You provide the conditions required for growth (water, warmth, air) and, after a certain time, you measure the length of the seedling above the soil, and note any curvature. Your analysis shows that the peas grown in the dark have grown longer than those in full light, while those illuminated on one side only have curved towards the light source. You have tested the hypothesis that peas grow towards the light, but you now need to construct a hypothesis to suggest why those grown in the dark are longer, and so on.
Figure 1.1 Scientific method
Scientific experimentation is a continuous process, as observations from experiments can then lead either to the support of the hypothesis and/or to the construction of new ones. It is the reporting and sharing of data that allows others to reproduce, and, therefore, to revalidate the experimental studies that to a very large extent inform the modern approach to scientific writing.
Scientific language
For quite a long time Latin was the international language of science in Europe and it was not until the seventeenth century that the use of English in scientific literature began to take off. Until then, however, science was only communicated between those who were highly educated and (usually) male. Newtonâs great work, Philosophic Naturalis Principia Mathematica (The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) was published in Latin in 1687.
During the seventeenth, eighteenth and even the mid-nineteenth centuries, scientific literature written in English followed the prose styles of the day and was often very conversational. For example Elie Metchnikoff, who developed the theory of phagocytosis in 1882, following experiments with starfish larvae, wrote:
I felt so excited that I began strutting up and down the room and even went to the seashore to collect my thoughts. I said to myself that, if my supposition was true, a splinter introduced into the body of a starfish larva ⊠should soon be surrounded by mobile cells as is to be observed in a man who runs a splinter into his finger. This was no sooner said than done.
Through the influence of the Royal Society, it became increasingly the practice to use a much simpler and more straightforward style of writing, which remains to this day, and this is what you should be aiming for. The development of scientific journals and periodicals has undoubtedly led to a much more formalized and structured approach, both in the manner that articles are set out and in the language used. This helps ensure that ideas are conveyed effectively in a way that can be easily understood by the educated reader.
Peer review
Henry Oldenburg (ca. 1619â1677) was the secretary of the Royal Society of London. He was the first editor of the Royal Societyâs Philosophical Transactions, first produced in 1665, which published the work of eminent scientists. In order to persuade scientists to publish their work, Oldenburg guaranteed that scientific âpapersâ would be published rapidly, ensuring that scientists received proper attribution for their original works. He also ensured the quality and standards of the publications by sending them to experts in the field, to comment on them and to recommend publication. This process continues throughout the world in those journals which publish âpeer-reviewedâ articles. A paper which has been published in a peer-reviewed journal is more highly regarded by the scientific community than one which has not, since it has been recommended by fellow scientists. However, unfortunately, on occasion, the system of peer review has sometimes delayed the publication of important works which have challenged the current view.
Basic rules for writing (scientific) English
Whether you are writing for publication in a peer-reviewed journal, for a research thesis, or for a simple laboratory report, there are certain rules you need to follow. Other chapters in this book will look at specific examples of scientific writing, such as laboratory reports, essays and so on. Here are a few rules to absorb before you get there:
1. You are not trying to write a piece of light reading or a work of fiction. You have to aim for a straightforward personal style that is understandable and readable. The material contained in your essay, report or paper must be rigorous and comprehensive. Scientific rigour may be a cliché. but it does sum up the basic overall approach. The last things you want in scientific writing are woolliness in your approach to your data and findings, and sloppiness in your use of words. Try to be precise, but do not confuse precise with brief. Use clear and unambiguous language. It is always worth remembering that if you have difficulty in understanding a passage in a textbook, then it could be that the passage is badly written.
2. Use short sentences wherever possible.
You may have heard of the âPlain English Campaignâ. It did much to get rid of badly written English from official documents. It recommends an average sentence length of fifteen to twenty words. Wherever possible, try to make sure that any sentence can be understood in a single read through. Overcomplicated sentence structures are totally off-putting. On the other hand, do not be afraid to vary the syntax of your sentences. A string of sentences like âthe cat sat on the mat and the mouse played in the yardâ can be boring in the extreme. So, a sentence such as âwhile the cat was sitting on the mat, the mouse played in the yardâ is both simple and more interesting. The phrase âwhile the cat was sitting on the matâ is an example of a subordinate clause, whereas the phrase âthe mouse played in the yardâ is the main clause. Use subordinate clauses whenever you can, as this will allow you to bring some flowing movement into your style. Think about what you want to emphasize in your sentence. Try to ensure that the key phrase or word is not lost or split up in a mass of other words. An example of a sentence which loses its way is
While the cat was sitting on the mat, which had recently been swept and dusted in order to keep out the dust mites, whose droppings triggered asthma in the butler, a tall and handsome man of many years, the mouse played in the yard.
The main point of the sentence (the mouse played in the yard) has been lost in all the extraneous detail!
3. Use simple words that your readers/audience will understand. Nonetheless, the use of simple words should not be at the expense of accuracy. For example, use ârainâ rather than âprecipitationâ, unless the context demands precipitation. Do not try to impress by using big or uncommon words where shorter words will do.
Technical words or phrases are generally a way of conveying a complex idea in as few words as possible. The same is true of acronyms and abbreviations.1 If you do use technical words or acronyms, explain them when they first appear. For example âThe structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) differs from that of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in âŠâ.
This can be particularly important in undergraduate first-year essays, as it will show your tutor that you understand the concept. For the most part, the extent to which you use technical language will depend on the readers/audience at whom your paper is aimed. Always be consistent in the technical words, acronyms and symbols you use. As far as abbreviations, as distinct from acronyms, are concerned, only use them for units of measurement.
4. Avoid colloquialisms: for example, you do not store reagents in the âfridgeâ or even the ârefrigeratorâ; you store them at 4°C. This is because it is the temperature that is important, not the location. Similarly, where necessary, you store reagents at â20°C or â70°C, rather than in the freezer. Some chemical reactions need to take place in the absence of light. The commonly used phrase is âstored in the darkâ rather than âin a laboratory cupboardâ.
5. Avoid vague adjectives which give a poor indication of what you mean, or which could be misinterpreted. For example, âthere was a large increaseâ depends on what you mean by âlargeâ. Also, you should avoid metaphors, similes and clichĂ©s as far as possible. By the way, if you are unfamiliar with any of these terms, like âsimileâ, we would recommend that you use a good, concise dictionary, such as the Compact Oxford English Dictionary. This will also be an invaluable tool when you come to write essays. Incidentally, this particular dictionary has a very useful appendix entitled âEffective Englishâ.
6. You should, at all costs, avoid teleology. Teleology occurs when you ascribe thoughts and purpose to objects or organisms. So, for example: âwoodlice like the dark and when faced with a choice will always prefer the darkâ.
7. Wherever possible use the active form of a verb rather than the passive form. For example, âthe experiments show/showedâ rather than âit was shown by the experimentsâ.
8. Use straightforward verbs rather than noun/verb combinations wherever possible. For example, instead of âreached agreementâ, just use âagreedâ. This is particularly important when you are writing assignments with a strict word limit, where you may be penalized for excessive word length.
9. Find out what the convention in your discipline or department is about the use of the first person, as opposed to the third pers...
