Glial Physiology and Pathophysiology

Alexei Verkhratsky, Arthur Butt, Alexei Verkhratsky, Arthur Butt

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9780470978535, 9780470978528
• eBook ISBN: 9781118402054
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Neuroscience
• Index: Biological Sciences

Glial Physiology and Pathophysiology provides a comprehensive, advanced text on the biology and pathology of glial cells.

Coverae includes:

• the morphology and interrelationships between glial cells and neurones in different parts of the nervous systems
• the cellular physiology of the different kinds of glial cells
• the mechanisms of intra- and inter-cellular signalling in glial networks
• the mechanisms of glial-neuronal communications
• the role of glial cells in synaptic plasticity, neuronal survival and development of nervous system
• the cellular and molecular mechanisms of metabolic neuronal-glial interactions
• the role of glia in nervous system pathology, including pathology of glial cells and associated diseases - for example, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's, Alexander disease and Parkinson's

Neuroglia oversee the birth and development of neurones, the establishment of interneuronal connections (the 'connectome'), the maintenance and removal of these inter-neuronal connections, writing of the nervous system components, adult neurogenesis, the energetics of nervous tissue, metabolism of neurotransmitters, regulation of ion composition of the interstitial space and many, many more homeostatic functions. This book primes the reader towards the notion that nervous tissue is not divided into more important and less important cells. The nervous tissue functions because of the coherent and concerted action of many different cell types, each contributing to an ultimate output. This reaches its zenith in humans, with the creation of thoughts, underlying acquisition of knowledge, its analysis and synthesis, and contemplating the Universe and our place in it.

• An up-to-date and fully referenced text on the most numerous cells in the human brain
• Detailed coverage of the morphology and interrelationships between glial cells and neurones in different parts of the nervous system
• Describes the role og glial cells in neuropathology
• Focus boxes highlight key points and summarise important facts
• Companion website with downloadable figures and slides

1

History of Neuroscience and the Dawn of Research in Neuroglia

1.1 The Miraculous Human Brain: Localising the Brain Functions

‘Many things seem miraculous until you understand them and some are so marvellous you could call them miracles.'

Merlin to young Arthur (Crossley-Holland, 2009)

Human brain and human intellect – these are still miraculous for us. The scientific endeavours driven by human curiosity have deciphered many miracles of nature. Yet our understanding of how we think, and where lies the fundamental mechanism that distinguishes a man from a beast, remains obscure and hazy.

The general concept that brain functions are produced by immensely complex structures localised in the brain parenchyma evolved slowly over history. In the most ancient times, the place for sprit, thoughts and cognition was believed to be associated with the heart, and this was considered to be the hegemonic organ by the Hebrews, the Mesopotamians, the Indians, the Egyptians and possibly the Chinese (Gross, 1995). The ‘cardiocentric’ doctrine was contemplated by ancient Greeks, who were the first to apply logic, scepticism and experimentation to understand the forces that drive the world and life. Possibly, it all began in about the 7th century BC, when Thales of Miletus made the fundamental discovery that our world is mostly made of water, a statement which, at least as far as life is concerned, remains undisputable. Slightly later, Empedocles broadened the list of basic elements of nature to earth, air, fire and water, and Democritus (460–370 BC) introduced the atomic theory, in which all differences between substances was determined by their atoms and inter-atomic relations. More or less at the same time, the idea of a special substance composed of air and vapours, the thymós or pneuma, which represents the substance of life, came into existence.

The concept of pneuma as the material substance of life, which acts as a vehicle driving all reactions of the body, was formalised by Aristotle (384–322 BC). The pneuma was a sort of ‘air’ substance that was diffusely present in living organisms; the mind was pneuma and had no specific localisation. According to Aristotle, the pneuma originated from the heart, and the heart was considered to be the primary organ controlling production of pneuma and also the central seat for sensory integration and initiation of movements. The heart was connected to the periphery by vessels and nerves (between which Aristotle made no distinction). The brain, which Aristotle almost certainly dissected, was of a secondary importance. The brain was a cold and bloodless organ; senseless, indifferent to touch, or even to cutting, and disconnected from the body. Most importantly, a brain was absent in many organisms that were able to move and react to the environment. The primary brain function, according to Aristotle, was to cool the pneuma emerging form the heart and thus temper the passions (Aristotle, 1992; Clarke, 1963).

An alternative concept which identified the brain as an organ of cognition was developed in parallel, being initially suggested by Alcmaeon of Croton (6th century BC), who practised dissections; he described the optic nerves and considered them as light guides connecting the eyes with the brain. Democritus suggested the first mechanism of signalling in the body. He thought about the psyche (the substance of soul and mind) as being made from the lightest atoms, which concentrated in the brain and conveyed messages to the periphery. Heavier atoms concentrated in the heart, making it the organ of emotions, and the heaviest in the liver, which therefore was the organ of appetite, gluttony and lust (Gross, 1995).

Plato was very much influenced by the ideas of Democritus and similarly considered the brain as a cognitive organ. The Hippocratic corpus (the assembly of approximately 60 texts on various aspects of medicine likely written by the members of Hippocrates' school in the 5th and 4th centuries BC) contains the treatise On the Sacred Disease, which directly identifies the brain as an organ of cognition: ‘It ought to be generally known that the source of our pleasure, merriment, laughter, and amusement, as of our grief, pain, anxiety, and tears, is none other than the brain. It is specially the organ which enables us to think, see, and hear, and to distinguish the ugly and the beautiful, the bad and the good, pleasant and unpleasant. . .’ (Hippocrates, 1950).

Systematic studies of the brain developed in the first research institute known to humanity – the Museum at Alexandria, organised and funded by Ptolemaeus I Soter (who in this enterprise consulted Aristotle), and further developed under the reign of the Soter's son Ptolemaeus Philadelphus. The Museum employed, on a tenure basis, about 100 professors, who were provided with laboratories for anatomy and dissection, with an astronomical observatory, zoological and botanical gardens and, above all, with a grand library containing hundreds of thousands of manuscripts.

Two leading neuroanatomists of the Museum were Herophilus (335–280 BC) and Erasistratus (304–250 BC) (Von Staden, 1989; Wills, 1999), who performed numerous dissections of the brains of animals and humans, including vivisections on live human subjects – criminals supplied by royal prisons. Herophilus and Erasistratus were the first to describe macroanatomy of the brain and to discover the brain ventricles. Importantly, Herophilus made a distinction (previously unknown) between nerves and blood vessels and classified the nerves as sensory and motor (Longrigg, 1993). Herophilus and Erasistratus were most likely the first to combine Aristotle pneuma with new anatomical findings, and they proposed the cephalocentric ventricular-pneumatic doctrine (although their works did not survive, and we can judge their ideas only after later texts referring to them). For many other aspects of the history of neuroscience and our understanding of the brain, the reader may consult several comprehensive essays (Clarke and O'Malley, 1996; Longrigg, 1993; Manzoni, 1998; Swanson, 2007).

The ventricular-pneumatic doctrine became widespread and was further developed by Claudius Galen of Pergamon (129–200 AD). According to Galen, the substance of intellect and sensations was the ‘psychic pneuma’, an extremely light (lighter than the air) substance, which acted as a producer and conveyer of thoughts, afferent and efferent signals. The pneuma was not a gas, however, but rather a fluid which filled the ventricles and hollow nerves. In this scenario, the brain acted as a pneuma producer and as a pump maintaining movement of pneuma through the motor nerves and aspiration of pneuma from sensory nerves. At the same time, the nerves, being rigid, provided for a very rapid signal transduction, much as the pulse wave in the blood vessels. The signal transfer between sensory organs and nerves and nerves and effector organs was made possible by the virtue of microscopic pores that allow free exchange of pneuma between the nerves and peripheral tissues (Galen, 1821–1833; Manzoni, 1998). All these flows of pneuma, according to Galen, had specific anatomic routes; for example, the sensory information were delivered to the anterior ventricles, whereas the afferent signals to the muscles originated from the posterior ventricle.

Thus, the psychic pneuma was assigned the central role in neural processes, from sensation to cognition and memory. The process of pneuma formation was, according to Galen, complex; it went through several stages that involved a specific processing which transferred the inhaled air into the vital spirit. This vital spirit then entered the choroids plexus, through which it eventually reached the ventricles, where the final refinement took place. The brain parenchyma therefore had a purely supportive role, being involved in the production of pneuma, whereas the latter was the true origin of thoughts, sensations, emotions and voluntary movements. These conclusions were experimentally corroborated in experiments on live animals, in which Galen ligated the nerves and selectively compressed different parts of the brain (he believed that by doing so, he affected only the ventricles). The ligation of the nerve, as Galen discovered, led to muscle paralysis; moreover, this process was reversible and removal of the ligature restored muscle contraction. These data were perfectly compatible with an idea of fluid which needed to propagate through the nerve to initiate contraction.

In his experiments on the brain, Galen further found that compression of anterior ventricle caused blindness, whereas compression of the posterior ventricle resulted in paralysis (De anatomics administrationibus – cited from Manzoni, 1998). Moreover, he discovered that surgical lesions of the pia mater or brain parenchyma did not cause immediate effects unless the ventricle was opened. The damage to the ventricles resulted either in serious sensory deficits (anterior ventricle) or in collapse and death (middle and posterior ventricles). According to Galen, the mechanism concerned was simple – opening of the ventricles led to the escape of psychic pneuma that rendered the brain incapable of performing its functions.

The ventricular-pneumatic doctrine became generally accepted and, with many modifications accumulated during centuries (for a comprehensive account see Manzoni, 1998), it dominated brain physiology through Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Figure 1.1). The main modifications of Galenic neurophysiology were represented by further attempts to localise brain function. In the Middle ages, Arabic (e.g. Avicenna an...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Preface
• About the Authors
• Abbreviations
• About the Companion Website
• Chapter 1: History of Neuroscience and the Dawn of Research in Neuroglia
• Chapter 2: General Overview of Signalling in the Nervous System
• Chapter 3: Neuroglia: Definition, Classification, Evolution, Numbers, Development
• Chapter 4: Astroglia
• Chapter 5: Oligodendrocytes
• Chapter 6: NG2–glial Cells
• Chapter 7: Microglia
• Chapter 8: Peripheral Glial Cells
• Chapter 9: General Pathophysiology of Neuroglia
• Chapter 10: Neuroglia in Neurological Diseases
• Author Index
• Subject Index