Planning and Assessment in Higher Education

Demonstrating Institutional Effectiveness

Michael F. Middaugh

• Publisher: Jossey-Bass
• Year: 2011
• Print ISBN: 9780470400906
• eBook ISBN: 9781118045527
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Evaluation & Assessment in Education

PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION Demonstrating Institutional Effectiveness

In this era of increasing pressure on higher education institutions for accountability, Planning and Assessment in Higher Education is an essential resource for college and university leaders and staff charged with the task of providing evidence of institutional effectiveness. Michael F. Middaugh, a noted expert in the field, shows how colleges and universities can successfully measure student learning and institutional effectiveness and use these results to create more efficient communications with both internal and external constituencies as well as promote institutional effectiveness to support student learning.

"How can the assessment of institutional effectiveness be used to provide a solid foundation for planning? Middaugh has crafted a comprehensive, practical guide that also explains what accrediting agencies really want and need to know about these topics." — Elizabeth H. Sibolski, executive vice president, Middle States Commission on Higher Education

"Only Michael Middaugh, the unquestioned national leader in this field, could write such a lucid overview of how to make institutional assessment and planning really work as a tool rather than as a tedious requirement. He helped invent and shape the focus of national assessment rubrics and now offers his insights into how to make them work for your institution." — John C. Cavanaugh, chancellor, Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education

"Middaugh provides extremely helpful and practical guidance and insights on how colleges and universities can use assessment tools and frameworks to improve both academic programs and administrative operations. A valuable and timely book for all higher education leaders." — James P. Honan, senior lecturer on education, Harvard Graduate School of Education

Chapter 1
The National Context for Assessment

Introduction: The Good Old Days

This book's focus is the inextricable linkage between planning and assessment as characteristics of effective colleges and universities in the twenty-first century. Such a linkage has not always been emphasized or valued within higher education. During the period from immediately following World War II through the early to mid-1980s, higher education in the United States led what can only be referred to as a charmed existence. Veterans returning from the War flooded into colleges and universities in the late 1940s and early 1950s, and were followed by their offspring—the so-called post-war baby boom—in the 1960s and 1970s. Public college and university enrollments increased exponentially, and so did governmental support. Private colleges and universities shared in the growth as the result of governmentally supported student aid programs. The number of degree programs and disciplines at institutions grew rapidly in response to student demand. This did not require a great deal of careful planning—it was essentially a situation of “build it and they will come.” And as long as graduates were produced in those disciplines with knowledge and skills required by business, industry, and government, there were few questions as to how money was being spent. These were halcyon days for higher education.

The environment began to change in the 1980s. The enrollment growth at higher education institutions dwindled as the baby boomers finished cycling through college. Economic recession in the early 1980s forced the federal and state governments to reevaluate their level of support for higher education—and parents to question the tuition levels being charged for their children to attend college. And the priorities for federal and state appropriations began to shift. Underperforming public elementary and secondary schools shifted governmental support for education to the K–12 sector. The erosion of federal and state support for higher education was further exacerbated by rising health care costs requiring greater governmental funding of Medicare and Medicaid and state health plans. Deteriorating highway and bridge infrastructure and demand for additional resources to support public safety issues, most notably construction of new incarceration facilities, further cut into public funds available to higher education. As the 1990s arrived, the financial picture for higher education was becoming increasingly bleak. As public funding declined, tuition levels increased. And as tuition increased, so too did scrutiny of higher education, with serious questions being raised about the quality of the product in which tuition dollars were being invested.

The Gathering Storm

One of the first hints that higher education's free pass to resources was evaporating came with a seminal article in Change magazine in 1990, in which Robert Zemsky, from the University of Pennsylvania, and William Massy, of Stanford University, articulated their vision of what they refer to as the “ratchet and lattice” within American colleges and universities:

[The academic ratchet] is a term to describe the steady, irreversible shift of faculty allegiance away from the goals of a given institution, toward those of an academic specialty. The ratchet denotes the advance of an entrepreneurial spirit among faculty nationwide, leading to increased emphasis on research and publication, and on teaching one's specialty in favor of general introduction courses, often at the expense of coherence in an academic curriculum. Institutions seeking to enhance their own prestige may contribute to the ratchet by reducing faculty teaching and advising responsibilities across the board, enabling faculty to pursue their individual research and publication with fewer distractions. The academic ratchet raises an institution's costs, and it results in undergraduates paying more to attend institutions in which they receive less attention than in previous decades. (Zemsky and Massy, 1990, 22)

The authors go on to argue that the “academic ratchet,” which describes a faculty less concerned with teaching than with other more personally rewarding activities, is invariably accompanied by an “administrative lattice,” characterized by burgeoning administrative offices assuming academic functions that were heretofore performed by faculty, such as academic advising, tutoring, and counseling. The administrative lattice further drives up the cost of higher education. Implicit, if not explicit, in the concept of the academic ratchet and administrative lattice in higher education is an enterprise that has lost managerial control over its basic operational functions and is strafed with inefficiencies. In short, the academic ratchet and lattice embody the complete absence of any systematic planning directed at ensuring student learning and enhancing institutional effectiveness. Thus were sown the seeds of discontent that would lead to an outcry in coming years over geometrically escalating tuition costs without an obvious significant return on investment.

In the same year that Zemsky and Massy published their Change magazine article, Ernest Boyer published his Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate, in which he described the changes in American colleges and universities following World War II:

But even as the mission of American higher education was changing, the standards used to measure academic prestige continued to be narrowed. Increasingly, professors were expected to conduct research and publish results. Promotion and tenure depended on such activity, and young professors seeking security and status found it more rewarding—in a quite literal sense—to deliver a paper in New York or Chicago than teach undergraduates back home. Lip service still was being paid to maintaining a balance between collegiate responsibilities and university work, but on most campuses the latter had clearly won the day. (Boyer, 1990, 12)

Boyer goes on to say:

Thus, in just a few decades, priorities in American higher education were significantly realigned. The emphasis on undergraduate education, which throughout the years had drawn its inspiration from the colonial college tradition, was being overshadowed by the European university tradition, with its emphasis on graduate education and research. Specifically, at many of the nation's four-year institutions, the focus had moved from the student to the professoriate, from general to specialized education, and from loyalty to the campus to loyalty to the profession. (12–13)

Boyer was strongly arguing that basic general education was being neglected in favor of niche specialties that coincide with faculty research interests. It was becoming increasingly difficult for undergraduates to engage in meaningful ways with tenured and tenure-eligible faculty, in whom the institution has the greatest investment. As the result of these criticisms of higher education, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching created a National Commission on Educating Undergraduates in 1995. It was initially chaired by Boyer and was subsequently renamed the Boyer Commission following his death. In 1998, the Boyer Commission issued an eagerly anticipated report, titled Reinventing Undergraduate Education, which leveled some of the harshest criticism yet on the quality of American postsecondary education. Consider the following assessment of research universities:

To an overwhelming degree, they [research universities] have furnished the cultural, intellectual, economic, and political leadership of the nation. Nevertheless, the research universities have too often failed, and continue to fail, their undergraduate populations . . . Again and again, universities are guilty of advertising practices they would condemn in the commercial world. Recruitment materials display proudly the world-famous professors, the splendid facilities and ground breaking research that goes on within them, but thousands of students graduate without ever seeing the world-famous professors or tasting genuine research. Some of their instructors are likely to be badly trained or untrained teaching assistants who are groping their way toward a teaching technique; some others may be tenured drones who deliver set lectures from yellowed notes, making no effort to engage the bored minds of the students in front of them. (Boyer Commission, 1998, 5–6)

While indicting research universities for failing to effectively manage their most important human resources—faculty—the Boyer Commission also had much to say about the state of student learning in higher education:

Many students graduate having accumulated whatever number of courses is required, but still lacking a coherent body of knowledge, or any inkling as to how one sort of information might relate to others. And all too often they graduate without knowing how to think logically, write clearly, or speak coherently. The university has given them too little that will be of real value beyond a credential that will help them get their first jobs. And with larger and larger numbers of peers holding the same papers in their hands, even that credential has lost much of its potency. (Boyer Commission, 6)

It was inevitable that this internal criticism within higher education would spill over into popular media. The 1996 issue of U.S. News and World Report's annual special issue on “America's Best Colleges” contained the following scathing commentary:

The trouble is that higher education remains a labor-intensive service industry made up of thousands of stubbornly independent and mutually jealous units that support expensive and vastly underused facilities. It is a more than $200 billion-a-year economic enterprise—many of whose leaders oddly disdain economic enterprise, and often regard efficiency, productivity, and commercial opportunity with the same hauteur with which Victorian aristocrats viewed those “in trade” . . . The net result is a hideously inefficient system that, for all its tax advantages and public and private subsidies, still extracts a larger share of family income than almost anywhere else on the planet . . .(U.S. News and World Report, 1996, 91)

The article goes on to hypothesize about the underlying causes of inefficiencies at colleges and universities:

For their part, most colleges blame spiraling tuition on an assortment of off-campus scapegoats—congressional budget cutters, stingy state legislatures, government regulators, and parents who demand ever more costly student health and recreational services. Rarely mentioned are the on-campus causes of the tuition crisis: declining teaching loads, non-productive research, ballooning financial aid programs, bloated administrative hierarchies, “celebrity” salaries for professional stars, and inflated course offerings. If colleges and universities were rated on their overall financial acumen, most would be lucky to escape with a passing grade. (91–92)

To sum up the critique of higher education to that point: American colleges and universities were depicted as fundamentally mismanaged, economically inefficient institutions charging dramatically escalating tuition rates for an educational product that was not demonstrably worth the price. Sadly, most colleges and universities lacked the quantitative and qualitative analytical evidence of institutional effectiveness that would enable them to blunt this criticism. Accurate or not, these critical perceptions of higher education went largely unchallenged, suggesting that higher education officials had determined that they were beyond accountability and that transparency in institutional operations was for other enterprises.

Enter the Federal Government

By the end of the 1990s, the crescendo of criticism of higher education had achieved a volume that the federal government could no longer ignore. Preparatory to reauthorizing the Higher Education Act in 1998, Congress earlier established a National Commission on the Cost of Higher Education to study, among other things, the underlying causes of spiraling tuition rates, administrative costs, and trends in faculty workload. The Commission's report...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Table of Contents
• Title
• Copyright
• Series
• Preface
• About the Author
• Chapter 1: The National Context for Assessment
• Chapter 2: Starting at the Beginning: Mission-Driven Planning and Assessment
• Chapter 3: Assessing Institutional Effectiveness: Student Issues
• Chapter 4: A Core Issue in Institutional Effectiveness: Developing Sensible Measures of Student Learning
• Chapter 5: Maximizing Human and Fiscal Resources in Support of the Teaching/Learning Process
• Chapter 6: A Comparative Context for Examining Data on Teaching Loads and Instructional Costs
• Chapter 7: Measuring Administrative Effectiveness
• Chapter 8: Communicating Assessment Results
• Chapter 9: Where Do We Go From Here?
• Appendix A: University of Delaware College Selection Survey
• Appendix B: University of Delaware 2007 Study of Instruction Costs and Productivity, by Academic Discipline
• References
• Web-Based References
• Resources for Further Reading
• Index
• End User License Agreement