Introduction to Presocratics

A Thematic Approach to Early Greek Philosophy with Key Readings

Giannis Stamatellos

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2012
• ISBN:
  9781118217597
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Philosophy
• Subtopic: Ancient & Classical Philosophy

INTRODUCTION TO PRESOCRATICS

"The general public and scholars alike will find Introduction to Presocratics stimulating, engaging and exceptionally useful. Stamatellos' intriguing and illuminating theme-based approach to this subject and his inclusion of a fresh translation of all the major fragments make this book a 'must have' for anyone interested in Presocratic philosophy."
Robert D. Luginbill, University of Louisville

"An excellent introduction to early Greek philosophy – full of information, yet eminently readable and clearly organised. The thematic treatment brings new perspectives and fresh philosophical insights."
Andrew Smith, University College Dublin

"Surveying the key surviving texts theme by theme sooner than man by man, Stamatellos offers the beginner clear and comprehensive insight into the compelling inquiries of the early Greek thinkers."
Susan Prince, University of Cincinnati

"Giannis Stamatellos' book is a very elegant and finely structured introduction to the fascinating beginnings of Western thought. He has succeeded in making a rather difficult and complex topic extremely accessible and stimulating."
Mark Beck, University of South Carolina

Despite what is commonly taught, Western philosophy did not begin with Socrates. The roots of Western philosophy and science, in fact, run much deeper than this watershed philosophical figure – to a series of innovative Greek thinkers of the 6th and 5th century BCE. Introduction to Presocratics presents a succinct overview of early Greek thought by following a thematic exposition of the topics and enquiries explored by the first philosophers of the Western tradition. Ionian figures such as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Pythagoras are covered; Eleatics such as Parmenides and Zeno; and Pluralists or Neo-Ionians such as Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus. Key areas of Presocratic philosophy are addressed, including principles, cosmos, being, soul, knowledge, and ethics. A brief account of the legacy and reception of the Presocratics in later philosophical traditions is also included. Also featured is an original translation of the main Presocratic fragments by renowned classics professor Rosemary Wright. Introduction to Presocratics offers illuminating insights into the true pioneers of philosophical thought in the Western tradition.

1

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

1.1 Periods of Ancient Greek Philosophy

1.2 The Presocratics as Pioneers

1.3 Presocratic Historiography

Introduction

‘Ancient Greek philosophy’ is the general phrase used for the philosophical explorations of Greek thinkers who flourished approximately between the sixth century BCE and the sixth century CE. It is usually divided, conventionally, into four historical periods:

1 the Presocratic period (c. sixth to fifth century BCE)

2 the classical period (c. late fifth to fourth century BCE)

3 the Hellenistic period (c. late fourth to first century BCE)

4 the late Hellenistic and Roman period, which extends far into late antiquity (c. first century BCE to sixth century CE)

1.1 Periods of Ancient Greek Philosophy

The Presocratic period covers the Ionians: Thales (fl. c. 585 BCE), Anaximander (fl. c. 550 BCE), Anaximenes (fl. c. 545 BCE), Xenophanes (fl. c. 540 BCE) and Heraclitus (fl. c. 500 BCE); Pythagoras (fl. c. 540 BCE) and the early Pythagoreans, for instance, Alcmaeon (c. 500–450 BCE) and Philolaus (c. 470–385 BCE); the Eleatics, namely Parmenides (fl. c. 480 BCE), Zeno (b. c. 490 BCE) and Melissus (fl. c. 440 BCE); and later thinkers, usually classified as ‘pluralists’: Empedocles (c. 460), Anaxagoras ( c. 450 BCE) and the early ‘atomists,’ Leucippus (fl. c. 450 BCE) and Democritus (b. c. 460 BCE ). Another important late Presocratic was Diogenes of Apollonia (b. c. 440 BCE).

The main figures of the classical period, which revolves around Athens, were Socrates (469–399 BCE), Plato (427–347 BCE) and Aristotle (384–322 BCE). Plato, the most famous follower of Socrates, established his own school, the Academy (c. 385 BCE), in northwest Athens; Aristotle, who was never an Athenian citizen, made extensive visits there and studied for 20 years in Plato’s school before setting up one of his own, the Lyceum (c. 335 BCE). Other influential thinkers of the classical period were the sophists, for instance Protagoras (fl. c. 460 BCE) and Gorgias (b. c. 480 BCE), who used to tour the Greek city states as independent teachers but were especially attracted to Athens. The sophists did not constitute an organized school of thought; rather they were professional intellectuals who used to teach rhetoric, politics and philosophy for a fee. They were strongly criticized for their views by Plato and Aristotle. Plato’s dialogue The Sophist includes a genuine critique of the sophistic movement, while Aristotle’s criticism can be found in his work Sophistical Refutations. Plato’s criticism is also expounded in dialogues such as Protagoras and Gorgias, named after famous sophists.

The Hellenistic period begins approximately after the death of Aristotle in 322 BCE and includes the following schools of philosophy:

1 The Stoic school (the “Porch,” Stoa), founded by Zeno of Citium (c. 334–262 BCE). Cleanthes (c. 330–230 BCE) and Chrysippus (c. 280–208 BCE) were the best known scholarchs (heads) of the Old Stoa after Zeno. Stoicism survived until and throughout the imperial times, with significant thinkers such as Seneca (c. 1–65 BCE), Epictetus (c. 55–c. 135 CE) and Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121– 180 CE).

2 The Epicurean school, known as the “Garden,” founded by Epicurus of Samos (341–270 BCE). Metrodorus (c. 331–278 BCE) and Hemar­chus (d. 278 BCE) were eminent thinkers in Epicurus’ succession. The Roman poet Lucretius (c. 90–50 BCE) was an important later Epicurean.

3 The Skeptic school, which had two branches: Pyrrhonian and Academic. The original and more radical form of Skepticism was established by Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360–270 BCE), from whom its name derives. Academic Skepticism was a later and milder (compromise) development, related to Plato’s Old Academy in Athens, which went through a Skeptical phase and developed a probabilistic epistemology under the leadership of dialecticians such as Arcesilaus (c. 316–c. 241 BCE) and Carneades (214–129/8 BCE).

4 Finally, the Cynic school founded by Antisthenes of Athens (c. 445–c. 360 BCE), initially a student of Gorgias, but later a pupil and follower of Socrates. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 404–c. 323 BCE) was a follower of Antisthenes and probably the most popular of the Cynics.

The late Hellenistic and Roman period, which extends far into late antiquity, includes the philosophers and the philosophical schools that flourished in the Roman Empire (c. 250 and 750 CE). During this period there was a revival of classical philosophy, which was mainly preoccupied with the careful study and systematic commentary of the works of Plato and Aristotle. The most important names here are Alexander of Aphrodisias (fl. c. 200 CE), Plotinus (204–270 CE), Porphyry (c. 232– c. 305 CE), Iamblichus (d. c. 326 CE), Proclus (412–385 CE), Damascius (c. 460–538 CE) and Simplicius of Cilicia (fl. c. 530 CE).

Damascius was the head of the Platonic Academy in Athens at the time of its closure by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in 529 CE. Whereas this date is usually considered to mark the end of ancient Greek philosophy, it should not be understood as the immediate ending of the activities of ancient Greek thinkers. As it is reported in Agathias’ Histories 2.30–1, Damascius and another six philosophers of the Academy, including Simplicius, migrated to Persia and joined the court of King Chosroes I (r. 531–579 CE), in order to continue their philosophical activities. However, they were quickly disappointed and returned to Athens, as Agathias notes, where they enjoyed freedom from persecution after a treaty that Chosroes concluded with Rome in 532 CE. In recent studies it has been alternatively supported that the aforementioned philosophers moved to Harran, where they joined a Platonic Academy that played a significant role in the transmission of Greek philosophy to the Islamic world. The case has also been made that Simplicius, and probably other philosophers, moved to Alexandria, where Christian Neoplatonists worked systematically on commentaries to Aristotle. The school of Alexandria, as it is known today, seems to have been active until 641 CE, when the city was captured by the Muslims.

1.2 The Presocratics as Pioneers

Why did philosophy emerge in the Greek city states of Ionia in the east and in Magna Graecia (south Italy and Sicily) during the sixth century? There were a number of contributing factors, such as the early travels and explorations of the Greeks in the Mediterranean world, the special character of Greek polytheism, the emerging social structure of the polis and the development and promulgation of the Greek language in written texts.

Trade and Travel

The Greeks of the sixth century BCE came in contact with other civilizations such as the Babylonian, the Hebrew, the Phoenician and the Egyptian. They traveled to Egypt and the Near East, engaged in trade or colonization, and, as a result, came across other customs and traditions, exchanging experiences, goods and ideas. This exchange and exploration contributed to the open-minded, pluralistic and comparative investigation of early Greek philosophy.

Religion

Ancient Greek religion was primarily a religion of cult practices, and not just a corpus of myths or a canon of sacred texts. It was an open-ended and multi-divergent narrative about the Olympian gods, without a strict or authoritative priesthood. The unrestricted character of Greek polytheism permitted to some extent divergent theoretical approaches and philosophical interpretations about the cosmos and the gods.

Language

The Greek alphabet and syntax eased the way for precision and communication in abstract and categorical thinking. Medical and mathematical treatises appeared alongside texts on geography and astronomy or the great work of Herodotus, the ‘father of history.’ Despite considerable dialect variations, these works became generally available, in a common and unifying Greek language, used both privately and publicly.

Society

The political and social structure was also important for early Greek philosophical inquiry and dialogue. In the sixth century BCE political movements in the Greek world generally, together with the emergence of city state democracies in particular, fostered a plurality of practices and customs and promoted critical reflection, independent argument and decision-making.

Education

Literary education in the Greek world was based on the epic poetry of Homer (the Iliad and the Odyssey) and Hesiod (roughly the Theogony and the Works and Days). Epic poetry was used as an authoritative voice to express human heroism, divine activity and the structure of the natural world. Lyric poets later turned to analyzing their conflicting emotions and, in a more private setting, raised awareness of the self. Greek education and culture encouraged questioning and a dialogue on various topics. Against this background, the Presocratics further evaluated, criticized and developed traditional worldviews and beliefs about the nature of the cosmos and of human life.

Competition

The ancient Greeks promoted the spirit of competition in such athletic events as the Isthmian, Nemean, Pythian and the Olympic games. The games included exhibitions in music and poetry, while the tragedians competed for prizes on a regular basis. The best competitors were excellent not only in physical skills, but also in intellectual abilities and talents. A spirit of intellectual competition and challenge can be found in the arguments and counter-arguments of the Presocratic thinkers.

Critical Dialogue

The early Greek thinkers were in a critical, yet creative philosophical dialogue with their teachers and disciples. Anaximander challenged the cosmological views of his compatriot Thales, while Anaximander was in turn criticized by his pupil Anaximenes. Heraclitus disdained the wide learning of Pythagoras and Xenophanes; he was followed by Parmenides, who refuted Heraclitus’ own theory of becoming and Ionian material monism. Zeno’s paradoxes of motion and the infinite divisibility of matter were tackled in different ways by Empedocles and Democritus, while Anaxagoras’ theory of mind was specifically criticized by Socrates as inadequate and disappointing.

Expression

Prose became the new medium of expression for most of the Presocratics. Pherecydes of Syros seems to have been the first to compose a work in prose in a philosophical context, which was probably contemporary with Aesop’s Fables, while in the sixth century Anaximander and Anaximenes wrote their books On Nature in prose, as a medium more suited to its subject matter than the elegant poetic style of Homer and Hesiod. However...