The Diagnosis of Lymphoproliferative Diseases

Kevin Gatter, Georges Delsol, Roger Warnke, Francesco Pezzella

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2011
• Print ISBN: 9781405170147
• eBook ISBN: 9781119971757
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Medicine
• Subtopic: Hematology

This highly illustrated, diagnostic guidebook provides a single comprehensive source of essential information to enable non-specialists to diagnose lymph node and related diseases with confidence. The text is didactic and practical, covering reactive as well as malignant conditions. Diagnosis of Lymphoproliferative Diseases approaches the disorders based on the WHO classification and is edited by members of the WHO panel for the classification of lymphomas.

This second edition contains over 1000 high quality, digitised colour images and tables of essential criteria for each diagnosis. New features include:

• Full discussion of immunostaining, the core of modern diagnosis
• Variant forms and technical issues

This authoritative guide is an essential reference for haematologists, haematopathologists, general pathologists, diagnostic histopathologists and oncologists.

1

General Introduction

The Biopsy

The decision on whether or not to biopsy a lymph node or other tissue for a suspected haematological disease is taken by the clinician. In a good haematological oncology unit the pathologist will be involved in this decision, if only to provide technical advice. The correct biopsy optimally handled is very much in everyone’s best interests and is often crucial in reaching an accurate diagnosis. The old military adage of the six Ps (proper preparation prevents p*** poor performance) was never more apt. Clinical details of who, when and what are better placed in clinical books but a few practical comments may be appreciated.

Sutton’s Law

If a patient has significant lymphadenopathy associated with other signs and symptoms, do not mess about with skin, bone marrow smears or cytological preparations in the hope that it will save a biopsy. If patients are sick they need a diagnosis and the money is in the lymph node.

Can We Manage with a Needle Biopsy – Skinny or Cutting?

In the first edition of this work we said no. These techniques are marvellous in their place but no substitute for a lymph node biopsy when it can reasonably be obtained. It has become increasingly obvious as costs and clinical workloads soar worldwide that we are going to have to cope with needle biopsies more and more whether we like it or not. This means that we will need to rely increasingly on ancillary techniques to make diagnoses. We should, however, never forget that these are suboptimal specimens and be aware that we may have missed the true lesion.

Must We Take Out the Whole Node? Can’t You Make Do with a Slice?

Yes and no (well perhaps). Lymphoid diseases are often focal and surrounded by reactive changes and so easy to miss on smaller samples. Slices get crushed with resultant misleading artefacts.

Go for the biggest node accessible. Cervical nodes are best and inguinal worst (due to the inevitable reactive changes). Take out the whole node and send to an alerted pathologist or experienced laboratory.

It is much better to send a fresh node so that it can be dealt with promptly and optimally. This also allows material to be used for techniques that can be suboptimal on fixed material such as some molecular investigations. It also enables material to be taken for biobanking, which is becoming increasingly important with the current renewed interest in translational medical research.

If the biopsy cannot be sent or processed that day, get the surgeon or lab technician to slice it like a boiled egg into fixative (plenty of). There is no better way that we know of ruining a lymph node than to ram it whole into a small pot. The capsule is immensely impervious to fixative, leaving the innards to rot rapidly.

Take representative blocks, one per centimetre should easily suffice, send a piece to microbiology if infection is queried and freeze a piece in liquid nitrogen (it can be stored at −70°C later). The rest of the slices can be left in fixative while a diagnosis is being sought. Most hospitals keep this material for a month or so, allowing plenty of time to go back for more blocks if necessary.

Which Fixative?

Theses have been written on this and largely ignored. Ninety-nine per cent of the world uses formalin and shows little evidence of changing. And if the steps above are taken, it is a good all-round reagent that is hard to better. All the other fixatives suggested to date (e.g. Bouin’s, B5, Duboscq–Brasil) are good in experienced hands but may compromise certain antibody stains and most molecular studies.

Immunocytochemistry

If you are doing serious haematopathological diagnoses you will be using a lot of antibodies. So you might as well invest in an immunostaining machine (or two). Once done you will wonder how you coped without it. It is just like having a dishwasher at home. All the machines currently on the market work well. They differ in the degree to whether they are open or closed systems, as well as whether antigen retrieval is available on the machines, or whether it must be performed manually (see below). Closed systems are fine when the finances for immunostaining are no problem because all the reagents can be bought pre-packed from the manufacturer and used straight off the shelf. If every penny (cent or euro) counts (as in the cash-starved NHS in the UK), then completely open systems are best where individual reagents, including the detection reagents, can be bought at good prices or begged and borrowed and used according to local recipes.

To our knowledge all machines are capable of following most techniques but, as with the fixatives above, most of the world has settled on one or other variation of immunoperoxidase staining. This gives excellent reliable results, and full details and technical back-up are available from a range of antibody companies. Recently introduced antigen retrieval techniques have been a revolution, so every laboratory needs a microwave and/or pressure cooker for manual methods as well as for certain staining platforms. Again all the reagents and advice necessary are available from the relevant commercial companies.

Which Antibodies?

In the early days of immunocytochemistry considerations of cost and labour led most pathologists to select reagents singly, according to the details of each case. Now that immunostaining is an accepted diagnostic technique and automated machines are available, there is little reason any longer to remain parsimonious. Link this with the current epidemic of medicolegal claims, and comprehensive panels of antibodies start to seem common sense. Ask yourself if you could justify in court missing a mantle cell lymphoma or a reactive node just because you thought a cyclin D1 or a bcl-2 immunostain was not warranted.

Specific details of individual antibodies and how they are used and interpreted are discussed under the individual entities. Here, for reference purposes, are the antibodies that we use routinely. All refer to use on paraffin-embedded fixed material. The clone numbers given are those known to us as working antibodies. New and better reagents appear regularly and may be available from more than one producer, so it is worth looking around. Pre-treatments for optimal staining are constantly being updated. They differ from place to place, and change as new techniques are described and new reagents produced. It is worth each laboratory testing out a number of these for themselves for each new antibody introduced. Table 1.1 gives a differential diagnosis between lymphoma and non-haematopoietic tumours.

Table 1.1 Differential diagnosis between lymphoma and non-haematopoietic tumours (i.e. undifferentiated carcinoma and malignant melanoma)

Antibodies/Clones	Major reactivities	Unexpected reactivities: remarks
CD45 Two clones 2B11 and PD7/26	Leukocyte common antigen (LCA) expressed by 90% of B- or T-cell lymphomas Some large-cell lymphomas, in particular anaplastic large-cell lymphoma and lymphoblastic lymphoma, are weakly positive or even negative for LCA Erythroblasts and megakaryocytes are negative Reed–Sternberg cells are usually negative	Exceedingly rare Occasional seminomas or primitive sarcomas positive for CD45 have been reported Exceptional carcinomas may show strong CD45 cytoplasmic staining though this is generally a misinterpretation of macrophages within the tumour
LSP1 Clone: LSP1	Most lymphomas and myeloproliferative disorders	No cross-reactivity has been reported
EMA Clone E29	Epithelial membrane antigen expressed by most carcinomas Various benign or malignant tumours of diverse origin >80% of anaplastic large cell lymphomas	Expressed by : L&H cells (>80%) in lymphocyte predominance Hodgkin disease; 10% of large B- or T-cell lymphomas; erythroblasts
Cytokeratin clones: 1....

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title page
• Copyright page
• Preface
• Abbreviations
• 1 General Introduction
• 2 Reactive and Infective Conditions
• 3 An Introduction to Lymphoma Diagnosis
• 4 B-cell Lymphoblastic Leukaemia/Lymphoma
• 5 T-cell Lymphoblastic Lymphoma/Leukaemia
• 6 B-cell Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemia
• 7 Splenic B-cell Marginal Zone Lymphoma
• 8 Hairy Cell Leukaemia
• 9 Lymphoplasmacytic Lymphoma
• 10 Plasmacytoma/Myeloma
• 11 Marginal Zone B-cell Lymphoma (Extranodal Malt and Nodal Types) and Extranodal Malt Lymphoma
• 12 Follicular Lymphoma
• 13 Mantle Cell Lymphoma
• 14 Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma
• 15 Burkitt Lymphoma
• 16 T-cell Prolymphocytic Leukaemia
• 17 T-cell Large Granular Lymphocytic Leukaemia and Aggressive NK-cell Leukaemia
• 18 Adult T-cell Lymphoma/Leukaemia
• 19 Extranodal NK/T-cell Lymphomas: Nasal Type
• 20 Enteropathy-associated T-cell Lymphoma
• 21 Hepatosplenic T-cell Lymphoma
• 22 Subcutaneous Panniculitis-like T-cell Lymphoma and Primary Cutaneous γ/δ T-cell Lymphoma
• 23 Mycosis Fungoides/Sézary Syndrome
• 24 Peripheral T-cell Lymphoma
• 25 Angioimmunoblastic T-cell Lymphoma
• 26 Anaplastic Large-cell Lymphoma
• 27 Hodgkin Lymphoma
• 28 Immunodeficiency-associated Lymphoproliferative Disorders
• 29 Histiocytic Sarcoma
• 30 Follicular Dendritic Cell Proliferations and Related Entities
• 31 Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
• 32 Myeloid Leukaemias (Myeloid Sarcoma)
• Index