Cartographic Relief Presentation

Eduard Imhof, Harry J. Steward

• Publisher: De Gruyter
• Year: 2015
• Print ISBN: 9783110067118
• eBook ISBN: 9783110844016
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Geology & Earth Sciences
• Index: Biological Sciences

Table of contents

• Chapter 1 Historical Developments
• Chapter 2 The Topographic Foundations
• A. Methods of topographic survey
• 1. Plane-table survey or plane-table tacheometry
• 2. Tacheometric survey
• 3. Levelling
• 4. Photogrammetry
• B. Accuracy in surveying terrain surfaces
• 1. Positional and height accuracy of surveyed points
• 2. The accuracy of edge lines
• 3. The examination of contour lines
• 4. Types of errors in contour lines
• 5. Koppe’s empirical test formula
• 6. Some additional methods of examining contour lines
• 7. The zone of mean positional error in contour lines
• 8. Contour accuracy in modern surveys
• C. Status and quality of the topographic mapping of the earth’s surface
• D. General or derived maps at smaller scales as working bases
• 1. General
• 2. Stylized representation of land forms
• Chapter 3 Further Basic Principles and Guidance
• A. The study of topography in terrain and maps
• B. On landscape drawing
• C. The aerial photograph and its interpretation
• 1. Some technical information about photography
• 2. Completion through field reconnaissance and identification
• 3. Rectification and photomaps
• 4. Aerial photo interpretation
• 5. Some essential differences between the aerial photograph and the map
• D. Binocular viewing of stereopairs
• E. Knowledge of geography and geomorphology
• Chapter 4 The Theory of Colors
• 1. Physical theory of color
• 2. Chemical theory of color
• 3. Physiological theory of color
• 4. Psychological theory of color
• 5. The classification of colors
• 6. Observations on color reproduction
• 7. On the harmony of colors and their compositions
• 8. On the symbolism of colors
• 9. Selection of colors from physiological points of view
• Chapter 5 The Problem and its Characteristics
• 1. Statement of the problem
• 2. General appearance of the land surface in nature
• 3. The use of terrain models
• 4. Variations in the surface forms of models
• 5. Basic factors affecting the ability to see spatial depth and solidity
• 6. Which of the spatial depth of solidity effects can be used in map design?
• 7. The map is not only a picture. The differences between maps and pictures
• 8. The forms and their dimensions should be capable of comprehension and measurement. The fiction of the “contour blanket”
• 9. Further fictitious indirect methods of representation including combined techniques
• 10. An experiment
• 11. Conflict and interplay between both approaches to representation. The progress of the direct technique
• 12. Dualism and individuality of cartographic representation
• 13. The generalization and the interplay of the graphic elements
• 14. Different circumstances. Different forms. The achievements to be sought after
• Chapter 6 Spot Heights and Soundings
• 1. Concepts
• 2. The cartographic significance of spot heights
• 3. Units of measurement
• 4. Datum Levels
• 5. The nature of spot height accuracies
• 6. The number and density of spot heights
• 7. Selection of spot heights - general
• 8. Some special cases
• 9. Graphic problems
• 10. Combination of the various height and depth data and the style of their symbols
• 11. Assigning height values to special river charts for large shipping rivers
• 12. Assigning height values to ocean shipping charts: “nautical charts” or “nautical maps”
• Chapter 7 Skeletal Lines
• 1. General
• 2. The skeletal line as a constructional aid in terrain representation
• 3. The skeletal line as a supplementary element in terrain representation
• 4. The skeletal line as an independent form of terrain representation
• Chapter 8 Contour Lines
• A. Concepts and terminology
• B. The vertical intervals between contour lines
• 1. Simple equal-interval systems
• 2. Combined interval systems
• 3. Intermediate contours
• C. Generalization of contours
• 1. Maps at scales of 1:5000 and larger
• 2. Maps at scales of 1:10,000 to 1:100,000
• 3. Maps at scales smaller than 1:100,000
• D. Relationships between survey accuracy and generalization
• E. Relationships between contour structure and contour interval
• F. Graphic conventions and forms
• 1. Index contours
• 2. Intermediate contours
• 3. Uncertain contour lines
• 4. Additional aids to orientation
• 5. Contour colors
• 6. Line weights, the form of broken lines
• G. Clarity of contours and the untenable theory of vertical lighting
• H. Variations of line weight, and three-dimensionally shaded contours
• 1. Increasing the line weight as elevation increases
• 2. Three-dimensional line strengthening without area tones
• 3. Local increases of line weight
• 4. Differentiation of the color of contours according to whether slopes are illuminated or shaded
• 5. Three-dimensionally shaded contours with flat area tones
• I. The employment of contours for elevations and depressions
• Chapter 9 Shading and Shadows
• A. General aspects
• B. Slope shading
• 1. Its gradations from light to dark and a re-examination of the theory of vertical illumination
• 2. Graphic procedure
• C. Oblique hill shading, or shadow depiction under oblique light
• 1. Light and shadow in nature, on the model and in the map
• 2. Geometric and topographic models
• 3. The drawing of forms
• 4. Shadow tones in flat areas
• 5. Cast shadows
• 6. Illumination by reflected light
• 7. Highlights
• 8. Aerial perspective
• 9. The direction of the light and its local adjustment
• 10. Untenable theories
• 11. South lighting
• 12. Leonardo da Vinci: The Master
• 13. Four difficult cases. Illustrating the importance of impression
• 14. The accuracy of shading
• 15. Small details in the land surface
• 16. The emphasis on large land forms
• 17. Generalization of three-dimensionally shaded land forms
• 18. Shading color and shading strength
• 19. Shading tones on glaciers and permanent snowfields
• D. Combined shading
• 1. The influence of shading hachures
• 2. Graphic representation
• 3. Misrepresentation of form
• E. Drawing material and drawing techniques
• 1. Requirements of the originals
• 2. Graphic framework
• 3. Scale of the drawing
• 4. Drawing surfaces
• 5. Working with drawing pencil, water-color brush or air-brush
• 6. Lightening: adding light to flat surfaces
• 7. Shading originals on grey-tone film
• 8. The uniform impression and good photographic and reproductive quality of shaded originals
• 9. Transfer to the printing plates
• F. Practical considerations: the advantages and disadvantages of shading and shadow tones
• 1. Slope shading
• 2. Combined shading
• 3. Oblique hill shading
• G. Oblique hill shading of the ocean floor
• H. Hill shaded images by model photography
• 1. General aspects
• 2. Preparation of models
• 3. Photography of models
• 4. Advantages and disadvantages of shading by photography
• I. Oblique hill shading with computer
• 1. The experiments of Yoeli
• 2. The experiments of Brassel
• 3. The experiments of Hügli
• 4. Some difficulties
• Chapter 10 Hachures and Other Related Techniques
• A. Some introductory remarks
• B. Slope hachures
• 1. The five rules of construction
• 2. Some details of formation
• 3. The use of darkening for slope hachures
• 4. The misrepresentation of form by slope hachures
• C. The shadow hachure
• 1. The five rules of construction
• 2. Misrepresentation of relief impression through shadow hachuring
• D. General mountain hachuring in small-scale maps
• E. The colors of hachures
• F. Graphic techniques used in production
• G. Deficiencies and advantages; combinations with other elements
• 1. The deficiencies
• 2. Advantages and applicability
• 3. Combinations
• H. Horizontal hachures
• I. Plan views of oblique, parallel planes intersecting the terrain
• K. Eckert’s dot method
• Chapter 11 Rock Drawing
• A. Evolution and potential
• B. Geomorphological examination of some rock formations
• 1. Origin of large formations
• 2. The importance of geological structure on the forms produced by weathering
• 3. Erosion gullies and depressions
• 4. Some other distinctive features
• 5. The debris mantle
• 6. Chemical weathering of rocks and karst forms
• 7. Wind Erosion
• 8. The plan view depiction of rock areas at small scales
• C. Form analysis
• 1. Demarcation lines
• 2. Ravine or gully lines
• 3. Crest lines
• 4. Skeletal line structure of erosional features and at large
• D. Graphic construction
• 1. Rock contours
• 2. Skeletal lines
• 3. Rock shading
• 4. Rock shading under so-called “vertical illumination”
• 5. Shaded rock hachuring
• 6. Rock hachures following the principle, “the steeper, the darker”
• 7. The color of rock hachures
• 8. Rock representation by means of area tints
• 9. Combinations of several elements
• 10. Karren regions (regions of clints), regions of roches moutonnées and slopes with protruding rocks: particular design problems
• 11. Portrayal of rocks in smaller scale maps
• 12. What training is required for cartographic rock drawing?
• E. Tools and techniques used in rock drawing
• 1. Pen and black ink work on drawing paper
• 2. Ink drawing on transparent film (Astralon, Kodatrace, Mylar, etc.)
• 3. Scribing on coated plastic films or on coated glass plates
• F. Examples from older and newer maps
• G. Critical examination and application of the different methods of rock drawing
• 1. Plans, 1:5,000 and larger
• 2. Plans, 1:10,000
• 3. Maps, 1:20,000 and 1:25,000
• 4. Maps, 1:50,000
• 5. Maps, 1:100,000
• 6. Maps between 1:100,000 and about 1:500,000
• 7. Maps smaller than 1:500,000
• Chapter 12 Symbols for Small Landforms and Other Supplementary Elements
• General
• 1. Artificial slopes
• 2. Clay pits, gravel pits and quarries
• 3. Landslides, torrent gullies
• 4. Dolines and other karst forms, sink holes etc
• 5. Scree slopes and debris mounds
• 6. Landslide mounds
• 7. Young moraines
• 8. Small features on ice surfaces
• 9. Dunes
• 10. Small volcanic forms
• 11. Brandstätter’s proposals
• Chapter 13 Area Colors
• A. The purpose and possibilities of area color tinting in maps
• B. Natural and conventional colors
• C. Colors for hypsometric tinting
• Type 1: The contrasting color sequence
• Type 2: Gradation based on the principle “the higher, the lighter”
• Type 3: Gradation based on the principle “the higher, the darker”
• Type 4: Modified spectral scale, standard form
• Type 5: Modified spectral scale with omission of the yellow step
• Type 6: Modified spectral scale with grey or violet steps for the highest regions
• Type 7: Karl Peucker’s color scale
• Type 8: Further variations and extensions of spectral color scales
• Type 9 and 10: Color gradations with optimum elevation modelling effects
• Type 11: Elevation color gradation for relief maps at large and medium scales with hill shading
• Type 12: Softened, modified spectral color sequence
• Type 13: Color sequences for three-dimensional hill shaded relief maps at small scales
• Color sequences for spectral hypsometric maps
• Further possibilities
• Depressions
• D. Color tones for the zones between bathymetric contours
• E. Heights of hypsometric steps on land
• 1. Equidistant steps
• 2. Two sequences of equal vertical interval steps in combination
• 3. Steps of equal area
• 4. Irregularly changing step heights
• 5. Steps based on an arithmetical progression or additive steps
• 6. Steps based on a geometric progression
• F. The depths of bathymetric steps
• G. Adjusting the color tones to the steps
• H. Further remarks on the representation of elevation steps
• 1. Contours in colored areas
• 2. Graphic design and generalization
• 3. Practical application
• 4. Legends for layer-tinted maps
• 5. Color chart for use at the reproduction stage
• Chapter 14 Interplay of Elements
• A. The Nature and effect of interplay
• 1. The necessity for and the careful development of good interplay
• 2. Conceptual, graphic and technical aspects of interplay
• 3. Consistent generalization and good standardization
• 4. Careful emphasis and restraint. Mutual relationships between things
• 5. Overlapping, discontinuities, substitution
• 6. Displacement, narrow passes
• 7. Changes in tint value resulting from combination
• 8. Terrain representation and textual matter
• B. Combination of various elements of terrain representation
• 1. Contours and slope- or shading-hachures
• 2. Rock depiction by means of contours, skeletal lines and hachures
• 3. Contours and slope shading
• 4. Contours with oblique hill shading or with combined shading
• 5. Rock drawing and oblique hill shading
• 6. Shaded hachures and shading tones
• 7. The landscape painting in plan view
• 8. Shaded and colored maps of medium and large scales, without contours
• 9. Contours and rock portrayal combined with hill shading and color tones
• 10. Slope hachures produced according to the principle “the steeper, the darker” and hypsometric tints
• 11. Shaded hachures and hypsometric tints
• 12. Slope shading following the principle “the steeper, the darker”, combined with hypsometric tints
• 13. Combined shading and traditional hypsometric tinting. Methods used up to the present time, with suggestions for ways in which they might be improved
• 14. Oblique hill shading combined with hypsometric tints in small scale maps
• 15. Relief shading combined with ground and vegetation colors in small-scale maps
• 16. Contours with equal vertical intervals, hachures and hypsometric tints
• 17. Contours with equal intervals, shading tones and hypsometric tints
• Chapter 15 Observations on Map Reproduction Techniques
• 1. General
• 2. Cartographic reproduction by photomechanical or electronic color separation of multi-colored originals
• 3. Some observations on drawing technique
• 4. The drawing sequence
• 5. Considerations of inaccuracies in register
• 6. The printing sequence
• Chapter 16 Future Developments
• 1. Present status of the topographic-cartographic record of the earth’s surface
• 2. Increased requirements for topographic maps at all scales
• 3. Is the map production technology of today equal to such requirements?
• 4. Automation in cartography
• 5. The modern photomap
• 6. On the nature of cartographic representation
• 7. On art in cartography
• 8. Reform in map design
• 9. Good maps are not always more expensive than bad maps
• 10. The key to progress
• Bibliography
• Supplementary Bibliography
• Index